Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Le

Volume 12 Intercultural Studies and Foreign Language Learning

12

This volume brings together contributions from academics, language teachers and practitioners from across Europe and beyond to discuss questions of autonomy and technology in the area of language learning and translation. The book focuses on English, French, Italian, Irish and Spanish language acquisition, but many of the essays also develop an interlinguistic perspective from a plurilingual point of view.

Alderete-Díez, Incalcaterra McLoughlin, Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning Ní Dhonnchadha and Ní Uigín (eds)

The book opens with key contributions from a number of leading scholars: Dr Daniel Cassany on critical literacies, Professor Henrik Gottlieb on translation into ‘minor’ languages, and Professor David Little on autonomy in language learning. These are followed by explorations of translation, technology, intercultural issues, autonomous learning and the European Language Portfolio. The volume represents an important contribution to the development of new plurilingual approaches to language teaching and learning.

Pilar Alderete-Díez is a university teacher in Spanish at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is currently completing a PhD in language learning and classroom research with the University of Valladolid. Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin lectures at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is co-director of the MA in Advanced Language Skills and teaches Italian language and translation. Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha is a Learning Technologist with specific responsibil ity for Modern Languages. She manages the multimedia language laboratories at the National University of Ireland, Galway. Dorothy Ní Uigín works in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge at the National University of Ireland, Galway.

ISBN 978-3-0343-0812-0

www.peterlang.com

ISFLL Vol. 12

Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning Edited by Pilar Alderete-Díez, Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin, Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha and Dorothy Ní Uigín

Peter Lang

Volume 12 Intercultural Studies and Foreign Language Learning

12

This volume brings together contributions from academics, language teachers and practitioners from across Europe and beyond to discuss questions of autonomy and technology in the area of language learning and translation. The book focuses on English, French, Italian, Irish and Spanish language acquisition, but many of the essays also develop an interlinguistic perspective from a plurilingual point of view.

Alderete-Díez, Incalcaterra McLoughlin, Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning Ní Dhonnchadha and Ní Uigín (eds)

The book opens with key contributions from a number of leading scholars: Dr Daniel Cassany on critical literacies, Professor Henrik Gottlieb on translation into ‘minor’ languages, and Professor David Little on autonomy in language learning. These are followed by explorations of translation, technology, intercultural issues, autonomous learning and the European Language Portfolio. The volume represents an important contribution to the development of new plurilingual approaches to language teaching and learning.

Pilar Alderete-Díez is a university teacher in Spanish at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is currently completing a PhD in language learning and classroom research with the University of Valladolid. Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin lectures at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is co-director of the MA in Advanced Language Skills and teaches Italian language and translation. Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha is a Learning Technologist with specific responsibil ity for Modern Languages. She manages the multimedia language laboratories at the National University of Ireland, Galway. Dorothy Ní Uigín works in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge at the National University of Ireland, Galway.

ISFLL Vol. 12

Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning Edited by Pilar Alderete-Díez, Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin, Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha and Dorothy Ní Uigín

Peter Lang www.peterlang.com

Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning

Intercultural Studies and Foreign Language Learning Edited by

Arnd Witte and Theo Harden

Volume 12

PETER LANG Oxford · Bern · Berlin · Bruxelles · Frankfurt am Main · New York · Wien

Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning edited by

Pilar Alderete-Díez, Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin, Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha and Dorothy Ní Uigín

PETER LANG Oxford · Bern · Berlin · Bruxelles · Frankfurt am Main · New York · Wien

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: International Conference on Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning (1st : 2010 : National University of Ireland, Galway) Translation, technology and autonomy in language teaching and learning / [edited by] Pilar Alderete-Diez ... [et al.]. p. cm. Articles are presented in English, Spanish, Italian, and Gaelic (Irish). “The papers included in this volume were presented at the First International Conference on Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning, held at the National University of Ireland, Galway on 10 and 11 December 2010.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-0343-0812-0 (alk. paper) 1. Language and languages--Study and teaching--Congresses. 2. Language and languages--Study and teaching--Technological innovations--Congresses. 3. Second language acquisition--Congresses. 4. Translating and interpreting--Congresses. 5. Learner autonomy--Congresses. 6. Communication--Cross-cultural studies--Congresses. I. Alderete-Diez, Pilar, 1975- II. Title. P53.I529 2010 418.0071--dc23 2012019533 ISSN 1663-5809 ISBN 978-3-0343-0812-0 (print) ISBN 978-3-0353-0340-7 (eBook) © Peter Lang AG, International Academic Publishers, Bern 2012 Hochfeldstrasse 32, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland [email protected], www.peterlang.com, www.peterlang.net All rights reserved. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. Printed in Germany

Contents

List of Figures

xi

List of Tables

xiii

Buíochas/Acknowledgements xvii Nollaig Mac Congáil

Brollach/Preface xix Réamhrá/Introduction 1 Part One Guest Contributors

9

Daniel Cassany

Foreign Language Reading from the Point of View of New Literacy Studies

11

Henrik Gottlieb

Translation into ‘Minor’ Languages: Invisibility vs. Anglification

37

David Little

Learner Autonomy, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, the European Language Portfolio and Language Teaching at University

73

viii

Part Two Translation

93

Emma García Sanz

El uso del diccionario en el aula de traducción

95

Elisa Ghia

Audiovisual Translation as Acquisitional Input: Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects

117

Cristina Oddone

Translation in Language Learning: Comparing and Contrasting Film Titles

137

Maria Pavesi

The Potentials of Audiovisual Dialogue for Second Language Acquisition

155

Lucía Pintado Gutiérrez

The Use of Translation towards Foreign Language Autonomous Learning

175

Verónica C. Trujillo-González

Principales Características y Dificultades traductológicas de un diccionario cultural

197

Part Three Technology

217

Emanuela Cotroneo

Da Facebook a Ning per imparare l’italiano: quando il social network fa didattica

219

ix

Alessandra Giglio

‘Racconto L2.0’: Esercitare la Produzione Scritta in Rete

241

Susanna Nocchi

Buongiorno, mi dica…or: Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem?

265

Part Four Intercultural Issues

289

Florence Le Baron-Earle

Social Media and the Acquisition of Intercultural Communicative Competence: A Focus on Discussion Forums

291

Victor Bayda

Teagasc na Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó

317

Claudia Borghetti

Pursuing Intercultural and Communicative Goals in the Foreign Language Classroom: Clues from Selected Models of Intercultural Competence

333

Part Five Autonomous Learning and the Portfolio

361

Encarnación Atienza and M. Vicenta González Argüello

El portafolio de formación desde el punto de visa del formando

363

Patrick Farren

Autonomous Language Teaching: Pre-requisite to Autonomous Language Learning

385

x

Belinda McHale

An Foghlaimeoir Machnamhach: Fís Mhíréadúil nó Féidearthacht Mhór?

403

Part Six Language Teaching

421

Linda Butler

Building Autonomy in Language Learning through Drama

423

Nataša Gajšt

Autonomous Business and Economics Terminology Acquisition in a Bilingual Context: A Glossary Based Approach

441

Elena González-Cascos Jiménez and Laura Filardo Llamas

Are They Children or Adults? The Lack of Impact of the Tenor Contextual Variable in EFL Classroom Materials

467

Jennifer Hatte

Technology, Tradition and Flexibility in the Teaching of Second Year ab initio French to Distance University Students in the Australian Context

481

Éamon Ó Cofaigh

Learning French through Irish: The Impact of Bilingualism on the Acquisition of French as an L3

499

Notes on Contributors

521

Index of Names

527

Index of Terms

535

List of Figures

Frontispiece by Marina Wild Figure 1 A traducir…se aprende traduciendo

110–13

Figure 2 Engeström’s Activity Theory System

274

Figure 3 Activity Theoretical Diagram of a Role-Play

278

Figure 4 Freagraí na Mac Léinn ar an gCeist ‘Cén fáth ar thug tú faoin nGaeilge?’

320

Figure 5 Balboni’s Model of Intercultural Communication Competence

343

Figure 6 Language and Communication in the Classroom Context

470

List of Tables

Table 1 Cognitive Orientation v. Socio-Cultural Perspective

15

Table 2 Importance of Translations

41

Table 3 Importance of English in Translations

42

Table 4 Importance of English Translations in Denmark

43

Table 5 Provenance of Books Translated into Danish/Dutch

44

Table 6 Languages Translated into Danish (1979–2005)

45

Table 7 Translations from English in Denmark (2010 estimates)

46

Table 8 Types of Print Media Translation

53

Table 9 A Case of Two-Step Anglification

65

Table 10 From Germanisms to Anglicisms: A Textbook Example

65

Table 11 Results of English Impact on Intranational Communication

66

Table 12 Continenti presenti in Facebook nel mese di dicembre 2010

225

Table 13 Fasce di età presenti in Facebook nel mese di dicembre 2010

225

Table 14 Le funzioni de Facebook in ottica didattica

227

Table 15 I principali social network per l’apprendimento linguistico

229

Table 16 I principali social software e social service

232

Table 17 Punteggio medio riportato dai corsisti

236

Table 18 The SL® Course

277

Table 19 Types of Disruption in Role-Plays

280

Table 20 Project Details

304

Table 21 Summary of Students’ Comments

309

xiv

List of Tables

Table 22 Students’ Comments on How the Discussion Forum Made Them Learn about French Culture

310

Table 23 The Selected Models in Relation to Three Research Questions

338

Table 24 A Summary of the Analysis Table 25 Corpus de Análisis

352–3 365

Table 26 The Number of Students Submitting the Seminar Papers Per Course and Per Academic Year

448

Table 27 Selection of Texts

450

Table 28 Selection of Technical Terminology

452

Table 29 Search for and Choice of Definitions

454

Table 30 Translation (Translating Vocabulary and Translation Process)

457

Table 31 Students’ Attitudes and Perceptions of Personal Achievements

459

Table 32 Corpus of Texts for Analysis

473

Table 33 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 1BA Language

510

Table 34 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 1BA French

511

Table 35 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 2BA Language

511

Table 36 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 2BA French

512

Table 37 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 3/4BA Language

512

Table 38 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 3/4BA French

513

Table 39 Average Scores for Mainstream, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and Native Irish Bilingual Students in 1BA Language

514

Table 40 Average Scores for Mainstream, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and Native Irish Bilingual Students in 2BA Language

514

List of Tables

xv

Table 41 Average Scores for Mainstream, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and Native Irish Bilingual Students in 3/4BA Language

515

Table 42 Average Student Language Progression (English Students)

516

Table 43 Average Student Language Progression (Irish Students)

516

Table 44 Average Student Overall Progression (English Students)

517

Table 45 Average Student Overall Progression (Irish Students)

517

Buíochas/Acknowledgements

Ba mhór ag na heagarthóirí buíochas a ghabáil le Comhairle Taighde na hÉireann um na Daonnachtaí agus na hEolaíochtaí Sóisialta (IRCHSS) as a ndeontas fial don fhoilseachán seo. Ní mór buíochas a ghabháil freisin leis na piarmheasúnóirí a chuidigh linn go fonnmhar agus an foilseachán seo á ullmhú. Ba dheas linn buíochas a ghabháil leis na mic léinn agus aon duine eile a chuidigh linn le linn na comhdhála i nGaillimh (10–11 Nollaig 2010) as ar eascair an foilseachán. Tá buíochas ar leith tuillte ag Marina Wild, sár-ealaíontóir a dhear póstéir na comhdhála agus a bhfuil a saothar le feiceáil anseo freisin. Ár mbuíochas chomh maith leis an Ollamh Nollaig Mac Congáil, Meabhranaí agus Uachtarán Ionaid OÉ Gaillimh, a scríobh brollach an leabhair dúinn. Gabhaimid buíochas lenár muintir a thacaigh linn agus an obair seo idir lámha. Ní fhéadfaí an foilseachán seo a thabhairt chun críche gan cuidiú agus saineolas ár sár-chóipeagarthóir, Anna Mc Donnell Dowling – go raibh maith agat, a Anna. Ar deireadh, ba mhaith linn buíochas a ghabháil le gach duine in Peter Lang, Christabel Scaife go háirithe, agus na heagarthóirí sraithe Arnd Witte agus Theo Harden. The editors wish to express their gratitude to the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (IRCHSS) for their generous grant in support of this publication. Gratitude is also owing to the peer reviewers who gave of their time willingly and freely to help in the preparation of this volume. We would like to thank all the students and others who helped at the conference in Galway (10–11 December 2010) from which this publication emanated. A special thanks to Marina Wild, the very talented artist who designed the artwork for our posters and whose work is reproduced again in this volume. Our thanks to Professor Nollaig Mac Congáil, Registrar and Vice-President of NUI Galway, for writing the preface to our publication. We also thank our families for their support during the preparation of this book. We could not have completed this

xviii Buíochas/Acknowledgements

work without the help and expertise of our excellent copyeditor Anna Mc Donnell Dowling – thank you, Anna. Finally we would like to thank all at Peter Lang, in particular Christabel Scaife, and the series editors Arnd Witte and Theo Harden.

Nollaig Mac Congáil

Brollach/Preface

At an early stage of the world’s history, communication was at a relatively low level which probably ref lected the narrow parameters of life as it was then experienced and practised. With the passage of time, basic survival and economic necessity forced communities to fan out in all directions over hills, across plains and over oceans. This led, in turn, to a concomitant diversification of verbal communication by homo loquens; hence the evolution of languages. Over centuries thousands of languages have evolved and some have become extinct. Some have become dominant world languages, whereas others have been relegated to very lowly and localised status. Factors inf luencing the dissemination of languages include economics, military expansion, diplomacy, emigration, religion, literacy, politics, technology and, of increasing importance currently, entertainment in all its manifestations. Knowledge of another language other than one’s own was initially at a basic level to communicate or elicit the rudimentary information required. Thus, the monoglot Gaelic-speaker from Ireland communicated his needs in English-speaking lands by pointing to items required and said ‘Give it!’ This level of knowledge of a foreign language was adequate for his needs. The linguistic needs of others, however, were and are on a dif ferent level. The dissemination of religions and expansion of empires, for instance, necessitated a higher level of linguistic competence and versatility. The invention of the printing press, the establishment of schools and universities and the spread of literacy and development of technologies of mass communication has brought the whole question of languages to the fore as never before. Universities are the natural fora where all aspects of languages can be discussed in an intellectual way, divorced from but conscious of all ethnic, religious, political or other bias. Within their walls is a creative space where

xx

Nollaig Mac Congáil

languages in all their manifestations exist and f lourish. There, experience of and expertise on language teaching and learning, translation, technology, pedagogy, literature, politics, culture can be shared and accessed. Ireland, and, more particularly, National University of Ireland, Galway was an ideal location for the first International Conference on Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning / An tAistriúchán, an Teicneolaíocht agus an Fhoghlaim Fhéinriartha i dTeagasc agus i bhFoghlaim Teangacha which was held in the winter of 2010 and organized by the university’s School of Languages, Literatures and Cultures, Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge and the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching. Galway is the most traditional, linguistically and culturally speaking, of Ireland’s cities, located beside the most extensive Gaelic-speaking area or Gaeltacht in the world and having at its centre a large university which aspires towards bilingual status. Such a location provides a workshop for practitioners and experts in the field. In tandem with a vibrant School of Languages, the University’s commitment to and investment in excellence in teaching and learning and its pre-eminence in information technology, all combine to provide valuable and informed input into wide-ranging discussions on all aspects of language-related topics. Speakers came from the four corners of Ireland and, indeed, of the world and paraded their wares, introducing us to the familiar and lessfamiliar in terms of languages, cultures, strategies and methodologies. All levels were catered for, from basic to intellectual, from practical to esoteric, from spoken language to literature. Learned and detailed papers, reproduced in this book, were presented on many aspects of language learning and teaching, methodologies and pedagogies, traditional and innovative, literature and culture, translation and interpreting, hands on and hands of f, psychological nuancing, etc. It is a veritable feast in terms of range and diversity. The world has been revolutionized by the invention of Gutenberg’s printing press, the availability of accessible world travel and the universality of the internet. All of these have impacted on languages in many dif ferent ways in recent years in particular. It is important that such dramatic and far-reaching developments should be discussed at appropriate intellectual

Brollach/Preface

xxi

fora as has happened at this First International Language Conference, the fruits of which are contained in this book of proceedings. Tá súil agam go mbainfear eolas agus tairbhe as na cainteanna a tugadh ag an gComhdháil seo agus atá i gcló sa leabhar seo. Tá súil agam fosta go leanfar ar aghaidh le comhdhálacha eile a mbeidh sé mar sprioc acu barr feabhais a bhaint amach sna réimsí cuí a bhaineas le chuile ghné de cheist na dteangacha. We have travelled a long way from cane to mouse, from bata scoir to hypnosis.

Pilar Alderete-Díez, Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin and Dorothy Ní Uigín

Réamhrá/Introduction

The papers included in this volume were presented at the First International Conference on Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning, held at the National University of Ireland, Galway on 10 and 11 December 2010. The aim of the conference was to provide an international multilingual forum for discussion and exchange of ideas on language teaching and learning and the resulting publication is, therefore, a snapshot of current research trends, language policy and teaching practices across Europe. The articles have been double peer-reviewed, a process that added greatly to the quality and the richness of the material presented here. Language teaching and the innovation of many language teachers have not always received due regard or acknowledgement, and indeed – in Ireland at least – language teaching has suf fered reduced funding at all levels in recent years. With this conference and publication, therefore, we sought to showcase the work of language teachers and translators at every educational level and across a series of languages – those most commonly taught in the schools and colleges in Ireland. Included here is Irish, since it is taught widely and at all educational levels, but is not always included under the heading of ‘Modern Languages’. As NUI Galway is committed to encouraging the establishment of a bilingual campus, and is to the fore in promoting education through Irish, it was important that this work was included in our conference and publication. The teaching and learning of modern languages does not date back as far as one might think. It was not a central part of the curriculum in European schools until the eighteenth century (Ellis, 1992: 2). Using methods that copied the teaching of Latin, teachers based language learning on the explanation of grammatical rules and translation. Oral interaction was not

2

P. Alderete-Díez, L. Incalcaterra McLoughlin and D. Ní Uigín

a priority and strategies such as memorization, analysis and the production of written language were the key to language learning. From these principles the ‘grammar-translation’ method developed. Having received much criticism in the twentieth century, this method has been recently reappraised in light of the review of cognitive strategies for language learning, and because of this, translation is making its way back into our classrooms. This is discussed in Part Two of this volume: the section is dedicated to translation in FL (Foreign Language) teaching, and covers topics such as the use of dictionaries in translation classes (Emma García Sanz) and the potential of audiovisual translation in language learning (Elisa Ghia, Cristina Oddone, Maria Pavesi). The significance of translation in fostering autonomous learning is discussed by Lucía Pintado Gutiérrez, while Verónica C. Trujillo-González examines the dif ficulties of translating cultural terms, and the benefits of cultural dictionaries. The twentieth century was dominated by various language-teaching approaches that may be categorized as direct methods or natural methods. They attempted to teach languages through the use of the target language only, aided by non-verbal cues and a teacher-led inductive approach. These direct methods were the precursors of the communicative approach, which dominated the field until recently. New approaches to language teaching tended to ignore, not only the advantages of the previous methods, but also the students’ previous knowledge. This anti-L1 (first language) standpoint has been a central element in late twentieth century language teaching and learning. Stemming from it is the discouragement of the use of the L1 in the classroom, which of course, dif fers from everyday practice. In general, teachers have a sense that using the target language as much as possible is important; however, they may not yet be in agreement as to how this is best achieved (Polio & Duf f, 1994: 324). Direct methods and the communicative approach suggest that the L1 should not to be used in L2 teaching and should be left outside the language classroom. According to Howatt (1984: 289), ‘the monolingual principle, the unique contribution of the twentieth century to classroom language teaching, remains the bedrock notion from which the others ultimately derive’. Stern (1992: 281) feels that the ‘intra-lingual’ position is still so strong that ‘many writers do not even consider cross-lingual objectives’,


3

even though the academic world encourages interdisciplinary approaches. As we can see in this volume of articles, however, recent approaches are not as prescriptive in forbidding L1. Part Six, in particular, contains papers dealing specifically with language teaching and of fers a wide range of topics from the assessment of learning materials created for bilingual schools (Elena González-Cascos Jiménez and Laura Filardo Llamas) to the creation of autonomous language learners through drama (Linda Butler). Éamon Ó Cofaigh, meanwhile, discusses the benefits of learning French through Irish, and Jennifer Hatte’s article deals with teaching French in a distance learning environment. Finally, Nataša Gajšt gives an interesting account of how learners of English in Slovenia have had success with a glossary based approach to language learning. The original justification for the exclusion of the L1 in the L2 classroom was based on the ideal equivalence of L1 acquisition and L2 learning. The assumption underlying this justification is that the only completely successful method of language learning is that used by children learning their first language. Language teaching, therefore, needed to match the features of L1 acquisition. Karen Atkinson and Robert Phillipson have examined the reasons behind this assumption: they maintain that the approach stems from the political context of the spread of English as a global language, characterized by several languages in the classroom and the teacher’s inability to speak them. This creates distance between the teacher and the student and restricts the possibilities for language learning rather than enhancing them. L2 learners, however, generally come into the class with an L1, a certain level of social development, a developed shortterm memory and relative autonomy (Singleton & Little 1984). Above all L2 learners already know how to negotiate meaning, which is a clear advantage that children do not have. The articles in this volume explore specific language learning contexts and how to best respond to students’ needs, maximizing the value of their previous knowledge and applying it to second language learning. Language immersion has, in recent years, become the preferred language-learning approach, based on the empirical evidence that a higher exposure to authentic input normally leads to better f luency. Programmes such as Erasmus/Comenius in the European Union were established in the

4


light of these beliefs. These programmes include the enriching environment of the target culture and are geared to the development of intercultural competence as well. Part Four of this volume includes several articles that deal specifically with this topic: Victor Bayda, for example, examines the dif ficulties Russian students of Irish experience with some of the cultural dif ferences between Ireland and Russia – dif ferences often exhibited in the language itself. Florence Le Baron-Earle discusses the ef fectiveness of online forums in the acquisition of intercultural competence, while Claudia Borghetti provides a comprehensive overview of the discourse surrounding intercultural competence, and provides a useful basis for the development of a methodological model of same. The authors of the many articles in this publication show that it makes sense to examine all the language teaching and language learning methods available in a positive manner and to apply them as appropriate to of fer the student the best guidance in language learning. This attitude has earned our era the label of the ‘post-methods era’ (Richards, 1981: 35). Brown (2002) criticized the concept of method believing that it was naïve to think that teachers’ procedures can be rationalized into a prototype (170), and Kumaravadivelu (1994) questioned the theory-driven nature of some methods, derived from disciplines such as linguistics, psycholinguistics etc (29). Richards and Rogers (2001: 20) argue that the time and social contexts of these methods are ignored and that they were responding to the specific demands of their context, and were not developed as infallible scientific truths. Brown’s (2002) postmodern pedagogy compares the teacher to a doctor, who is capable of diagnosing the needs of his/her students and giving them advice in the use of successful strategies that facilitate their learning (11). Nunan, meanwhile, believes that balance between theory and practice will be reached when research and insights about language learning of fer joint empirical solutions (1991: 1). Recent debates about language teaching and learning have included discussions about Computer-Assisted Language Learning or CALL, another focal point of this volume. Levy introduced the term in 1997 as ‘the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning’ (1). CALL includes all types of information technology and it emerged in the 1960s with traditional behaviourist software programmes.


5

In recent years CALL has seen a mindboggling development of these first small software packages into the realm of virtual learning environments and massive multiplayer online games (MMOs) as well as blogs, wikis, podcasts and social networks characteristic of Web 2.0 (soon to become Web 3.0). The use of classroom technology such as pointers, interactive whiteboards and, more recently, mobile-assisted learning – with the proliferation of Smartphone technologies and tablets – also come under the CALL umbrella. Most of these ICT tools, however, are not used on their own as language programmes, but have aided the creation of blended learning programmes. Blended learning mingles classroom interaction and computer-based activities. Countries, including Ireland, are investing at a national level in the creation of free digital resources deposited in the NDLR (National Digital Learning Resources) to help in language teaching and learning – as well as other areas of academia. The third section of this volume focuses on the impact of new technologies on language teaching and discusses the wide-ranging implications of the didactic use of social networking tools now widely available in Web 2.0 (Emanuela Cotroneo), the use of blogs to improve writing skills (Alessandra Giglio) and the potential of Second Life and virtual worlds for promoting intercultural awareness (Susanna Nocchi). Language teaching and learning has developed a considerable corpus of educational techniques and the quest for the ideal method is part and parcel of that tradition. The model designed by Byalistok (in Tunku Mohani, 1991) in 1978 ref lected a change in viewpoint in language learning. The main innovation in this model was the introduction of the concept of ‘other knowledge,’ which could refer to another language or to knowledge of a dif ferent kind. The second innovation that this model presented was ‘strategies’. Student strategies and later on, teacher strategies, have become the object of much research conducted in the last few. In this volume, teachers and researchers of fer their insights, showing how teaching approaches can cooperate with, rather than compete against, each other, enriching both teacher and student perspectives. Several of the papers in this publication draw on the research of our three guest speakers at the Galway conference: Dr Daniel Cassany, Prof. Henrik Gottlieb and Prof. David Little. Daniel Cassany is engaged in the

6


new line of research called Critical Literacies and sheds some light on the way students all over the world have learnt their first language. These insights of fer a dif ferent perspective on how these students approach the learning of a second or third language. It focuses on student voices by telling the stories of several students from very dif ferent parts of the world, extracted from a database created by the Critical Literacies Research project conducted in University Pompeu i Fabra in Barcelona in Spain. Henrik Gottlieb’s article, meanwhile, challenges the foreignization strategy in translation, especially when applied outside the Anglo-American context. Gottlieb argues that the use of such a strategy outside that context increases the impact of English on languages already subject to the inf luence of the Anglo-American culture. A wealth of data is supplied in his article, in a detailed analysis of the trends of the translation market. Finally, David Little’s article discusses the notion of autonomous learning in the context of the European Portfolio and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Professor Little is one of the architects of the Framework and a leading expert in autonomous learning. The fifth section of the book develops the topic of autonomy in language teaching and learning – in the vein of David Little’s keynote contribution – and depicts dif ferent approaches to both concepts of autonomy. Encarnación Atienza’s and M. Vicenta González Argüello’s article, for example, discusses the use of portfolios in language teaching and learning. Belinda McHale explores autonomous learning in the Irish-language classroom in the context of a focus group of A2 learners, while Patrick Farren argues that autonomous language teaching is a pre-requisite for autonomous language learning. In the spirit of multilingualism and plurilingualism, this volume contains articles in four languages, and deals with many more. In a world where English is fast becoming the lingua franca, we have sought to celebrate all languages, L1, L2, L3, and at all levels from A1 go C2.


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References Atkinson, K., Talbot, M. and Atkinson, D. (2003). Language and Power in the Modern World, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Brown, H.D. (2002). ‘English language teaching in the “post-method” era: Toward better diagnosis, treatment, and assessment’. In Richards, J.C. & Renandya, W.A. (eds) Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 9–18. Duf f, P. and Polio, C. (1994). ‘Teachers’ Language Use in University Foreign Language Classrooms: A Qualitative Analysis of English and Target Language Alternation’, The Modern Language Journal, 78, 313–26. Ellis, R. (1992). Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy, London: OUP. Howatt, A.P. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford: OUP. Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). ‘The postmethod condition: (E)merging strategies for second/foreign language teaching’, TESOL Quarterly, 28, 27–47. Levy, M. (1997). CALL: context and conceptualisation, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nunan, D. (1991). ‘Methods in Second Language Classroom-Oriented Research: A Critical Review’, Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13, 249–74. Phillipson, R.H. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford: OUP. Richards, J.C. (1981). ‘Beyond Method: Alternative approaches to instructional design’. In Prospect, 3(1), 11–30. Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge UK: CUP. Singleton, D. and Little, D. (1984). Language Learning in Formal and Informal Contexts, Dublin: IRAAL. Stern, M. (1986). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching, Oxford: OUP. Tunku Mohani, T.M. (1991). ‘Learner Strategies in Second Language Acquisition’, The English Teacher, XX: October. accessed 8 March 2012.

Part One

Guest Contributors

Daniel Cassany

(Translated by Pilar Alderete-Díez and Lorna Shaughnessy)

Foreign Language Reading from the Point of View of New Literacy Studies1

1 Reading in a Foreign Language and New Literacy Studies The practice of ‘Reading in a foreign language’ usually involves a few common ideas or axioms, which are seldom discussed openly. I am referring to assumptions, representations or concepts such as: 1. Learners already know how to read in their mother tongue and can transfer this skill to the foreign language. This af firmation implies that reading is the same in every language, community, context and time period. 2. Reading involves the recovery of the content of the written text and this content is located in its words. This af firmation assumes that other aspects of reading such as the purpose of reading, the characteristics of the texts, the roles that reader and author take on, and the circumstances under which reading develops (context, moment, etc.) are not relevant. 1

Part of the data used in this paper comes from a research project called Descripción de algunas prácticas letradas recientes. Análisis lingüístico y propuesta didáctica (HUM2007– 62118/FILO; 2007–2011), from Plan Nacional de Investigación Científica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica funded by the Spanish Government. The Literacitat Crítica team that coordinates this Project, integrated in Gr@el (Research group on the teaching and learning of languages), is also funded by the Catalan government as a consolidated research group (AGAUR 2009 SGR 803, 3–7–2009). I would like to acknowledge the help of Youssef Afeita, Ibrahim Akazi, Yu-Chin Li, Liana Egiazarian, Bahareh Mahdavi and Roberto Ortí in the elaboration of this paper.

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3. The vocabulary and grammar of the foreign language need to be learnt in order to recover the content. This af firmation assumes that the only dif ference between reading in Spanish and other languages stems from linguistic competence, or in other words, that in every community or context people read in the same way, or even that any specific aspects of reading in dif ferent contexts are irrelevant. 4. Reading is a universal and homogenous skill, based on cognitive processes which have a human biological basis, so that there are neither cultural nor pragmatic variations in the way each community uses written texts. These four af firmations derive from a cognitive psychological perspective, which reduces the practice of reading to the mental activity involved in its process and ignores the physical, contextual, pragmatic and cultural particularities of every literacy act. Thus, these previous af firmations ignore the following elements: a) The physical features and qualities of each textual artefact (paper, screen, profile, graf fiti); b) The processes of production, distribution and reception of the artefact, with their particular circumstances (cost, speed, distribution channel, production and reception contexts, etc.); c) The space-time parameters of each literate situation: geographical and social enclave (institution, environment), historical moment, epistemological stance or discipline (science, arts, entertainment); d) The roles that the author and the reader assume in each context (teacher, journalist, neighbour, colleague), as well as their psychosocial aspects (identity, social status, intellectual and moral authority, worldview); e) The pre-established procedures in each reading practice (communicative purpose, discourse genre, structure, protocol, rhetoric and politeness) as well as the insertion of this reading practice in its social context: the relationship between reading and speaking, between text and terms, rights and duties; f ) The values and attitudes associated with each reading practice (Is it prestigious? Does it lend power to the author? Is it considered original


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or repetitive?), as well as the political and social order that rises from each practice or the power at stake or the forms of domination and resistance that are exercised in it. Without these specific aspects and circumstances, each reading practice loses its peculiarities and dissolves into a general, abstract, homogeneous and neutral activity. Reading a novel on paper, skimming through a sports newspaper in a bar, reading and signing the contract for a mortgage, buying a train ticket in a vending machine in the street, or searching for the meaning of a term on the Internet are deemed the same. It does not matter where or when it happens, the role that the reader adopts, the purpose or the structure of a text and its support, or even the social value that the practice has acquired in each community. According to this approach, reading and understanding basically consist of the activation of cognitive processes that include decoding, inference making, hypotheses construction, previous knowledge recovery, meaning elaboration, and the use of linguistic competence (vocabulary and morphosyntax). It is this approach that refers back to an essentialist or autonomous approach to reading, based on cognitive psychology, that has prevailed until now in research on teaching and learning practice, both in the teaching of the mother tongue and in foreign language teaching (Grabe 2009; Parodi ed. 2010). However, a socio-cultural perspective of reading takes into account all those particularities that the previous points highlight. It adopts a situated and ecological approach, which takes into account the singularities of each reading practice and its socio-cultural variations, without leaving aside the cognitive and linguistic components of written usage. In a seminal text, Barton and Hamilton (2000: 8) articulate this stance with six axioms: 1. Literacy is best understood as a set of social practices; these can be inferred from events which are mediated by written texts. 2. There are dif ferent literacies associated with dif ferent domains of life.

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3. Literacy practices are patterned by social instiutions and power relationships, and some literacies are more dominant, visible and inf luential than others. 4. Literacy practices are purposeful and embedded in broader social goals and cultural practices. 5. Literacy is historically situated. 6. Literacy practices change and new ones are frequently acquired through processes of informal learning and sense making. From this approach, each literacy community (country, discipline, institution, gang) creates its own written artefacts (parchment, tables, books, notebooks, fora) that are used to develop the social practices that require writing (copying, reciting, signing, filling forms, composing poems) and that have been created throughout history. The members of each one of these communities use these artefacts daily to lead their lives, to achieve specific goals within the community and in ordinary social activities (at work, home, street, free time). To put it more synthetically, reading is a ‘transitive verb’: we read each text in a dif ferent and particular way, in each context, in each community, in order to do dif ferent things. Reading is an appropriation of a literate social practice which uses a pre-existing textual object in a pre-established way and which has pre-established conventions known by all, in order to fulfil certain relevant purposes in each community. This two-column table compares a cognitive orientation, related to psycholinguistics, with a socio-cultural perspective, which we are proposing in this article:


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Table 1 Cognitive Orientation v. Socio-Cultural Perspective Cognitive Approach

Socio-cultural Approach

• Reading = Cognitive linguistic approach. • Text = communicative unit, message. • Message is neutral. • We read verbal texts. • Reading activities are homogeneous. • Reading = decoding, inferring, understanding. • Reading = accessing data. • Learning how to read = acquiring the code, developing strategies. • Prototype tasks: what information does the text provide? Identify the main topic.

• Reading = literacy practice, embedded in a social practice. • Text = social and political artefact. • Message is located, and therefore, it has ideology. • We read multimodal texts. • Reading practices are distributed by domains and scopes, which are institutional, dominant and vernacular. • Reading = doing things, taking on roles, building identities. • Reading = exerting power. • Reading = appropriating preestablished practices. • Prototype tasks: When and where can I use this text, this data? What is the author’s intention?

The socio-cultural orientation perceives the literate community as a human group that develops a collection of literacy practices, located in social practices, which use written artefacts and are located in specific time-space contexts. These artefacts are multimodal objects that integrate writing with other forms of representation of knowledge (images, drawings, videos, tables, etc.) and which have developed socio-historically in specific contexts, linked with pre-established purposes, roles, and values, instilled with their own community culture. Due precisely to cultural aspects and because writers and readers are located within human groups, these artefacts recover, reproduce, discuss or widen the ideologies of their community. In addition, written artefacts and literacy acts are distributed by domains or contexts (home, school, work, government) which can be more dominant (government, school) or vernacular (home, street, private life). When using written artefacts and participating in literacy practices, individuals build their social identity in a literacy community and they

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exert their power, within an established order or challenging this same established power. The members of each community appropriate these written artefacts and use them in literacy practices in order to achieve their objectives in such a way that the most common questions which are posed are: a) what is the purpose of this artefact and b) what is the intention of the person sending this text or writing all this in a piece of news? These questions are completely unlike the conventional classroom questions about the main idea or information contained in a text, which are taken completely out of context. It is not within the remit of this article to review or fully describe here this socio-cultural approach to reading, which has already been publicized in Spanish (Zavala 2002; Zavala, Niño-Murcia, Ames ed. 2004; Cassany 2008; Kalman, Street ed. 2010; Cassany ed. 2011), so I will simply locate it historically quoting some of the research and authors. Perhaps the most common term for this approach in the Anglo-Saxon context has been New Literacy Studies (NLS), which has been translated into Spanish as Nuevos Estudios de Literacidad (NEL), even though the adjective ‘new’ does not make much sense at the moment, since this approach has a considerable developed trajectory. It started with Sylvia Scribner and Michael Cole’s ethnographies The Psychology of Literacy (1981) and Shirley Brice Heath’s Ways with words (1983), which discussed the dichotomized vision of spoken vs. written culture derived from the use of speech and writing – stemming from famous anthropologists and linguists such as Jack Goody, Walter Ong, David Olson and Eric A. Havelock – known as The Great Divide. More recently, work by David Barton and Mary Hamilton, Roz Ivanic, Gunther Kress, James Paul Gee, Roland Scollon and Suzanne Scollon or Brian Street, amongst others, has explored several aspects of this approach, which little by little has developed as an alternative to cognitive approaches. In Spanish, this approach has important researchers in Latin-America, with the work of Virginia Zavala and Patricia Ames in Peru, Mercedes Niño-Murcia in EUA, Judith Kalman, Guadalupe López-Bonilla and Alma Carrasco in Mexico, Marieta Lorenzzati in Argentina, to name but a few; in Spain it is worth mentioning the research done by the group of David Poveda in Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and our group of Literacitat Crítica in Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona.


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From our point of view, there are several powerful reasons to justify the application of this approach to the treatment of reading in a foreign language, both in research and teaching. This approach: 1. Considers the historical, social and cultural particularities of each reading practice, which allow us to explain in a more detailed and clearer manner the tight bonds established between language and culture and the particularities of each community in relation to their reading and writing practices. With this approach, the fact that we find dif ferent and particular reading practices in each community of speech that are appropriate to the idiosyncrasies of every human group makes more sense and shows more coherence. 2. Allows us for epistemological particularities of each context of knowledge and each academic discipline. In other words, the ways of reading and writing in the context of business in Spanish do not fully match the texts and common practices of justice or government administration; neither does it match research in laboratories on experimental science. Every context develops its own literacy practices and a socio-cultural point of view can highlight these in a clearer, more emphatic manner. 3. Provides a critical perspective to language teaching and learning, which is relevant in a globalized world in which we are all committed to the struggle against injustice and inequality. If it is impossible to be neutral politically, as a teacher and as a learner, the management of ideology (opinions, social representations, imaginaries) must come into the classroom as well, in a respectful and humanistic way. 4. Is coherent with other linguistic approaches such as discourse analysis, corpus linguistics or discourse genre analysis. Specifically, it complies with the tradition of structural analysis of discourse genres, which stems from the famous pioneering study by John Swales about scientific articles, their structure, their rhetorical moves and the verbal resources employed in each of them. I consider that this socio-cultural orientation is compatible and even complementary to this proposal, which has played its part in the teaching of writing and reading exactly in an L2. In fact, the last publications by John Swales (2004) attribute a bit more relevance to the extra textual or cultural elements in the texts.

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5. Does not reject the input of psycholinguistics on the processing of syntax or discourse with cognitive processes. In fact, this socio-cultural perspective can go hand in hand with the theories dealing with the process of comprehension and composition. All in all, this socio-cultural view does not dispute the relevant role that cognition and linguistic competence have in reading. However, the change of perspective and consideration of the socio-cultural aspects mentioned will change the way in which we perceive reading. Particularly, it is important to review the four first issues dealing with reading in a foreign language with which we started this section: 1. The fact that the learner knows how to read in their mother tongue does not necessarily mean that he or she can also do it by default in another community, because their written artefacts and literacy practices do not coincide. The ways of reading and writing vary according to the languages, communities, contexts and time periods (Cassany forthcoming). Hence we should analyse the reading needs of each learner, identify artefacts and corresponding practices in the target community and develop proposals of appropriation of these artefacts. Undoubtedly, previous reading experience in other contexts (languages, disciplines and with several artefacts) facilitates the appropriation of new forms of reading, but that transference of skills is not automatic. 2. The social and cultural aspects of reading are as important as the recovery of the explicit content of a text or the development of cognitive processes to construct the meaning in the reader’s mind. A learner who knows most of the vocabulary of a foreign written text and can understand its main ideas, but ignores the interpretation, the value or the power that is given to it in the target community, has not understood anything. Since the socio-cultural aspects vary from practice to practice and from one community to the next, we cannot assume that the learner will transfer them from his/her reading practice in his/ her mother tongue.


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3. The learning of vocabulary and grammar of the foreign language is not enough to guarantee that the learner will be a good reader. The appropriation of textual artefacts implies knowledge of the pragmatic features (intention, politeness, communicative parameters) and the cultural aspects (social value of the artefact, historical use, etc.) of each literacy practice that uses each artefact. 4. Since reading varies from context to context, no-one knows how to read or write all the texts of a community. Like any literate citizen, the learner should only appropriate the reading practices that are of interest to him/her, in their social context (profession, entertainment, work) which is only a reduced subsection of all the artefacts and literacy practices of a community. Summing up, this socio-cultural orientation of reading, which responds to the particularities of each social practice, a) of fers a more global theoretical framework; b) takes into account in a more detailed and plausible manner the variations in the usage of written texts in a more plurilingual and multicultural era, in which we all have access to texts and practices from other communities, and c) it neither rejects nor disputes the importance of cognitive and linguistic components in the task of reading. But until nowadays, socio-cultural studies have focused above all on literacy practices in the mother tongue (Kalman, Street ed. 2010; Poveda, Sánchez 2010), in current digital environments (Lankshear, Knoble 2011) or in educational or academic environments in plurilingual or pluricultural contexts (Poveda, Palomares-Valera, Cano 2006; Zavala, Córdova 2010). There are fewer works published under the remit of the teaching and learning of foreign languages (Wallace 1988; Koda 2005).

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2 Critical Comprehension in Second Languages Let us have a look at a research group that has developed under this sociocultural view of reading, which emphasizes the diversity of possible readings and the need to pay attention to the particularities of each practice. Next, we will sum up two case studies carried out by our research group dealing with reading on the Internet in Spanish, and specifically dealing with higher levels of comprehension or critical comprehension – which refers to the ability to interpret the ideology of a written piece (intention, political tendency, point of view) according to the value that native speakers of the language – also members of the community that produced it – would attribute to it (Cassany 2008). There are some studies on digital reading in L2 from a cognitive perspective (De Ridder 2003), but other studies stress that the comprehension of ideology, text and the diversity of reading contexts or the impact of previous knowledge and reading practices in the mother tongue on the reading in second language are far less common. Francina Martí (2008) asked three Catalan-speaking secondary school students (13–14 years old) to choose a webpage about drugs to recommend to a friend, amongst the three preselected through a Google search: 1) tododrogas.net, a Spanish website by a pharmaceutical association about all types of drugs and with very technical information; 2) ideasrapidas.org, also a Spanish website, deals with varied topics (abortion, divorce, human dignity, AIDS, drugs) and even though it does not acknowledge authorship or sources, seems to come from some religious Catholic group with proselytizing motives and religious features, since they relate drugs with human dignity, religion and ‘the Creator’, and 3) gencat.net/salud, an institutional website in Catalan from the Autonomous Government, with topics on youth, including drugs. Therefore, the informants read a website in their mother tongue (Catalan) and two in their environmental language (Spanish in Catalunya), and they had to choose a website from the three options which had completely dif ferent perspectives: a scientific one, a religious one and a political one. While they were carrying out the task, they read on the screen and chatted, the researcher observed them and took notes and recorded the session; afterwards, the informants were interviewed.


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The informants discarded the pharmaceutical webpage because it was too technical, but disagreed on the others: Two of them liked the religious one even though there were no pictures (‘es més difícil llegir-la, però està millor explicada’ [it is more dif ficult to read it but it’s clearer]) the third one was suspicious of the references to religion (‘aquí parla molt de Déu’ [they talk a lot about God here]) and the word ‘the Creator’ (‘eh!, un moment: El Creador…’ [hey, just a second: the Creator]) because it reminded him of an old man that sometimes waited for the students outside the secondary school, to preach about the end of the world and the return of ‘the Creator’. In the end, the three informants chose the religious website and only in their final interview with the researcher, forced to justify their choice and to explain why they ignored their suspicions, the boys were made aware of the religious twist in the website and they wanted to change their choice. Summing up, the study shows that the boys: a) are aware of their information needs, since they reject technical data (pharmaceutical website); b) notice web design and clarity as a superficial criteria of assessment (religious website), and c) attach meaning to their reading when they can relate it to their world (term ‘the Creator’). But they are not critical readers because: d) they ignore webpage ideology (intentions, orientation, authorship); e) they cannot interpret linguistic markers that denounce ideology, and f ) they are not able to position the authors of the website in the social order within the community. The reasons for this deficit are more complex and speculative and, in this case, do not seem related to the use of a second language (Spanish), a fact which is mentioned neither in the interviews nor in the conversation about the reading task: the informants feel comfortable in both languages (Spanish and Catalan). The hypothesis of the researcher refers to the previous reading experiences of the informants, which lacked a critical perspective and also their lack of experience in reading websites of this kind, or fulfilling the task of assessing them and choosing one. Murillo (2009) presents us with a similar but more complex task involving two French Arts students in their second year, both Spanish language learners since they were seven years old (in other words, very competent: B2/C1). The task consists in gathering trustworthy information from the Internet about the of ficial languages of Spain for a journalist who needs to write a feature article in French about the issue. Some more

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specific questions asked in this task were: how many languages there are in Spain, what they are, how many speakers each of them have, if they are of ficial or they are not in their area of usage and finally, what is a ‘language’ and what is a ‘dialect’? Using these questions, they needed to clarify, for example, whether ‘Castilian’ and ‘Spanish’ are the same language, whether ‘Catalan’ and ‘Valencian’ are the same language, whether ‘Andalusian’ is a language in the same way as the others are, etc. The task is recorded in a Webquest entitled Reportaje Babel: las lenguas de España. Murillo prepared this Webquest, gathered previous questionnaires from the informants about their use of Internet, recorded their conversations while they read, carried out interviews with each of them, revised their written reports, observed the development of the task, transcribed all the oral material and analysed the dif ferent sources in a triangulated manner. There were six webpages chosen for this task;2 1) Three anonymous and controversial opinions in a discussion forum about of ficial languages in Spain; 2) a scientific article from a university teacher in a website about Castilian; 3) The institutional website of PROEL, which defends minority languages; 4) the webpage called Just Landed for foreigners who want to study Spanish in Spain; 5) a blog by Educastur in Asturias for secondary school teaching, and 6) several documents from El Rincón del Vago, a website of notes, exams, summaries and school work done by students for students. This selection includes dif ferent genres, authors and opinions, precisely because they demonstrate one of the dif ficulties of reading on the web, which incorporates in the same space very diverse texts in terms of origin, intention and content.

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Links to the websites used: 1) Lenguas oficiales de España: ; 2) El castellano.org. Javier Cubero ‘España es un concepto plural’: ; 3) PROEL: ; 4) Just Landed: ; 5) Blog Educastur: ; 6) El rincón del vago: .


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In this context, Murillo describes the ideal reader within these parameters. The ideal reader: a) Identifies the practice (website, blog, forum), its purpose (to inform, to convince), the author (institutional/private, scientific/legal) and its audience; b) Locates the discourse in its original socio-cultural context, in other words, distinguishes a personal blog from a scientific article or a Spanish government ministry from an NGO or an anonymous author; c) Develops an awareness about the reading process, bearing in mind the aim of the reading process, and reads strategically guided by this aim, noticing what it is understood and ignored, and d) Builds a personal opinion, combining the dif ferent points of view, the data he or she has read, the personal points of view and the contributions of other readers (friends, colleagues). Given the good level of Spanish (B2/C1) of the informants and their status as university students (with a higher education and culture), our departing hypothesis would suggest that the students would draw on previous reading behaviour and that they would be able to solve the main issue of the task at hand. However, the general results showed dif ferently – we will only present here a few data: 1. The informants do not incorporate the data from their reading, in other words, they do not integrate in their answers the information provided in the websites, despite being able to understand it without dif ficulty. For example, they believed that Andalusian was a language, but while searching for information about this issue in the webpages suggested and others (such as Wikipedia), they did not find confirmation for their belief, concluded that ‘these websites were bad’, and continued believing that Andalusian was a variety of Spanish like Catalan or Galician (Murillo 2009: 53):

A2: non, il en parle pas de l’andalous A1: ah oui je te parle de l’autre langue

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A2: ça c’est une introduction || il faut trouver combien de gens le parlent || on peut regarder sur Google A1: gente: andalous: ah Wikipédia!, moi j’aime bien A2: Bon mais c’est PAS DU TOUT SURE, eh? A1: oui A2: ah non, Wikipédia tout le monde peut mettre A1: il y a pas A2: non mais tu vois? ça c’est la pire des merdes A1: on retourne si tu veux A2: la pire des sources

Similarly, in spite of the fact that some websites contain information about the lack of semantic variation between the words ‘Spanish’ and ‘Castilian’, in their final answer they concluded that: ‘Castilian is the way of speaking in Madrid and Spanish is the way they speak all over Spain’. Something similar happened with the terms ‘language’ and ‘dialect’: after having visited several webpages containing accurate data, they repeated their previous idea that ‘language’ is the language of the state and ‘dialect’ refers to all other ways of using a language, carbon copying probably a French perspective about linguistic diversity. Summing up, the informants kept their attachment to their previous knowledge, to the semantic, pragmatic and social meaning that these words have (language, dialect, Andalusian) in their community, they translate it into Spanish and Spanish communities, and they reject the data provided by the Internet. (This invites further research on informants from other communities, which may have dif ferent previous ideas, in order to check how they react to this type of task and to verify if their attachment to their previous ideas related to their mother tongue and culture prevail.) 2. The informants identified some superficial features in some genres (they distinguish the forum from the blog) and they can identify the author (Ministry, NGO, etc.), but they are not always aware of the consequences of this authorship, and they have significant dif ficulties in assigning reliability to each website. In this fragment of their dialogue, the informants compare two websites that they are not sure about, Educastur and Elcastellano.org (Murillo 2009: 56):


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A1: Educastur ça a un rapport avec éduquer, non? (laugh) oui ! A2: Qu’est-ce qu’on fait ? A1: Je ne sais pas A2: bf f, j’aime bien les deux quand même A1: on sait même pas qui l’a écrit || non, il n’y a pas de source, quoi || une fois en Terminal on a fait ça comment choisir les bons sites A2: C’est un blog quoi A1: VOILÀ | moi si je veux je peux mettre n’importe quoi […] A2: c’est dif ficile A1: on a des doutes A2: moi mon préféré c’est soit celui-là soit point.org A1: Oui […] A2: en fait celui-là il est mieux parce qu’il décrit A1: et c’est plus concret/ A2: et l’autre n’est pas ni of ficiel ni rien Undoubtedly, the informants do not have enough socio-cultural background to understand the websites (their institutions, authors, intentions, etc.), in order to value their quality, and finally, in order to decide if the information they provide is useful. This shows the need for foreign language learning to include information and instruction about main websites and resources that are located in the Internet for each language. 3. The informants do not critically analyse discourse. They do not pay attention to the lexical choices (historical dialect, use of dialect and language in each website, absence of Andalusian) in their statements, and other markers of subjectivity which show the ideology and perspective of each website. The only linguistic features that attract their attention are orthographic mistakes or informal expressions, such as lo ves?, yo creo, which they interpret as a lack of formality and seriousness in the website.

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Summing up, this study shows that readers with a good level of Spanish have important dif ficulties in understanding some webpages from the Spanish community and in attributing to them the meaning they have and how they are understood in our community. It is not a matter of a lack of linguistic competence, but a lack of pragmatic and socio-cultural competence, as Murillo explains in his two first conclusions: If the students do not possess the ability to read critically, they will not be able to fully understand the discourse, no matter how good their Spanish is. That is why it is important to pay more attention to critical reading on the Internet in the teaching of Spanish as a Foreign Language (SFL). Students find it dif ficult to access a higher level of reading comprehension situation model (according to the theoretical model of comprehension by Kintsch, Rawson 2005) because they lack previous experience or their knowledge is not adequate. On top of that, they tend to put too much trust in the socio-cultural knowledge related to their mother tongue.

All in all, these two case studies show that the dif ficulty in understanding websites in Spanish as a second language or as a foreign language does not depend on the level of linguistic competence of the informants. In both cases, the informants have a good level of Spanish, but they have significant dif ficulties in understanding the intentions of these websites, in interpreting in a plausible way the information that they provide, and to complete the task in a satisfactory way. Such dif ficulties seem to derive from a lack of experience in digital reading online and in critical reading, in their capacity to infer discourse ideology (first and second case), or in a lack of knowledge of the socio-cultural aspects of Spanish reality (its languages and their representation of Spanish population in the second case). Both researchers also confirm the thesis that the reader used his/her previous knowledge and experience in reading in their L1 in order to solve the task in L2 (Bernhardt 2003), but more precisely with negative results. Teenagers read websites about drugs as if they were reading a textbook, in which – seemingly – all information is neutral and it does not make any sense asking about ‘ideology’ or authorial intention (which are not amongst common questions in school reading practices). On the other case study, readers competent in Spanish as an L2 show their attachment


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to sociolinguistic prejudices of their own community and are incapable of constructing a dif ferent meaning from the empirical data provided by the texts that they have read. In both cases, previous knowledge and practice of reading in their mother tongue and in the school environment act as a brake or a dif ficulty in reaching a comprehension closer to the ideal parameters. All this seems to indicate the need to incorporate to the teaching of foreign language certain aspects about reading practices and the main literacy artefacts used in the community. In order to interpret Spanish texts in the way Spanish people do, SFL learners should know which are the main written artefacts (journals, webpages, institutions) and which af filiation they have (public/private, ideological tendencies or social value in the community). On the other hand, the poor results of critical comprehension obtained from the informants suggest the urgent need to incorporate in the languages classroom, reading tasks that deal with the search for ideology. Only in this way, will learners be able to appropriate these practices in a relevant manner, according to the norms and values of the community.

3 Literacy in Diverse Communities We looked at the diversity of reading practices in the previous section, emphasizing electronic texts. In this section we will turn our attention to individual previous experiences of reading. The socio-cultural perspective of reading maintains that reading practice also varies according to the reading history or literacy acquisition process, because it creates very dif ferent individual trajectories that inf luence knowledge, skills and subsequent practices. From a more diachronic and personal perspective, in this section we will review the literacy history of SFL learners who were trained in cultures with writing systems, practices and values that are very diverse, which in turn will highlight the consequences that personal stories have in the learning of a second language.

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Daniel cassany

Our research has the following objectives: a) To document and describe the initial literacy practices of SFL learners in writing systems dif ferent from the Latin-based, and in cultures that are very dif ferent from the Spanish culture; b) To document and describe the initial practices of appropriation of the Latin alphabet (in Spanish or other languages) by these same subjects, in formal contexts of learning in their country of origin and in the countries in which the target language is spoken; c) To describe and analyse dif ferences and particularities in the practice of literacy and its instruction, in order to show the diversity of usage and the varied ways of profiting from writing as a learning tool, and finally, d) To describe the use that these second language learners make of writing. The underlying hypothesis is that the practice of literacy is extraordinarily diverse, because it is related to the culture and educational tradition (religious, professional, private, entertainment) of each community, and that this practice inf luences the habits and writing practices of the SFL learners. In particular, we would like to explore the hypothesis that some cultural and educational traditions (in Asia and Slavic countries), favour the use of writing as a learning tool in a second language (in order to collect linguistic forms, analyse or study them), while other cultures and traditions (Muslim) emphasize the use of spoken strategies in learning (memorizing, enunciating, dialogue, etc). The following data comes from in-depth interviews with adult SFL learners who were born and raised in communities with non-Latin-based systems of writing, who initially were instructed in the use of this system and afterwards, learned Spanish as a Foreign Language. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and accompanied by photographs and other graphic documents taken from the didactic material used (textbooks, pronunciation guides, lists and vocabulary notebooks) in the initial literacy training of these subjects. (These are provided by the interviewees and photographed or scanned or are available on the Internet, identified and collected with the


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help of the interviewee). We also interviewed some teachers with experience on the teaching of their mother tongue or of SFL for learners from those communities, interviews which allowed us to corroborate the data provided by the youngest interviewees. For each informant we carried out one or more interviews, which could take up to thirty or sixty minutes and which constituted between 6,000 and 12,000 transcribed words. Up until now, we have documented eighteen subjects trained in Arabic (1 Moroccan, 1 Tunisian and 2 from Ceuta), Russian and Ukrainian (5), Chinese (2 Taiwanese and 2 Chinese), Greek (1), Hindi (2), Parsee (1) and Armenian (1). In this section we are going to present and comment on three literacy histories and we will only focus on some specific aspects of their practices: 1. Chiaomei was born in 1982 in Kaohsiung (Taiwan) in a Taiwanese family. She remembers that in kindergarten (3–5 years) she repeated and memorized traditional poems made up of four lines and with a strong rhythmical structure, in Mandarin, which the teacher would teach; at home, her parents rewarded her for reciting them with presents or money, they were preparatory activities. In primary (6–7 years) she leant ‘Bopomofo’ (ㄅㄆㄇㄈ), an alphabet made up of thirty-seven graphic symbols (21 consonants and 16 vowels) which symbolize the phonemes of Mandarin and represent traditional Chinese characters, through the combination of several symbols, as a means of mediating between speaking and traditional writing. The teacher taught each symbol pronouncing its phonetic realization and showing the strokes that were required to write it, while the children repeated orally all together and drew on the air with their fingers the shape of the symbol – ‘because the order of the strokes is very important’. Afterwards, came the first Chinese characters. In the textbook, beside each character or Hanzi they had the corresponding Bopomofo signs, in a smaller writing, which allowed them to relate it to its spoken realization. They read traditional texts that she still remembers, such as the poem: ‘My dad went fishing. With this gale and overcast sky, how is it that he has not come back yet?’. The teacher enunciated the text and the children repeated it sentence by sentence, first together with her help and then on their own, before drawing the strokes of the Chinese characters on the air. Next came ‘vocabulary’, which consisted of learning how to write some of the characters on these texts, first on the air and then copying them on paper. In primary school, she learnt 100–200 characters a year; she reached about 3,000 in secondary school (required in order to read the newspaper) and up to 5,000 in the

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Daniel cassany following years of her university preparatory education (‘learning characters takes a long time’). In secondary, she read classical texts of Chinese literature and which were translated in the classroom into present-day Chinese. Outside of school, she read some novels and stories ‘in hiding’, because this was frowned upon: every second of her time was devoted to studying to pass their university entry exam. At thirteen or fourteen years of age, she learnt English. Her teacher sang the letters of the alphabet with a song ‘to aid remembering’. Grammar was complicated, because in Taiwan they do not teach it with their mother tongue (‘I learnt the grammar of English without knowing what the subject was called in my mother tongue’). In the years of preparation for university, she started to study Spanish: in her first class ‘they gave us Spanish names’ and she was given the name of Hilda – ‘I did not like it at all’. Today she has a Spanish grant to do her PhD at a university in Spain. Summing up, ‘it’s undeniable that learning’ written ‘Chinese, demands a huge memorising ef fort’. The way of learning Spanish is also based on this didactic practice of repetition and graphic memory. In addition, Taiwanese people are ‘more visual than hearing’. Chiaomei still finds it surprising, living in Spain, that when she finds an unknown word in a text and enunciates it, she understands it because she ‘associates’ it with a word that she has previously heard in a conversation. 2. Abderrahman was born in 1966 in Tamerza (Tunisia, near the Sahara) to an Arabic speaking family. At seven, he started attending a school funded by the UN, which subsidized a lot of families: ‘my father only had to buy a small blackboard for me’. He remembers the long wooden benches, the ceramic inkpot (made of burnt remains of sheep mixed with wool) and cane feathers that ‘we made with our own hands’. The first year was in Arabic, but in second year (8 years old) he started to be bilingual: he had two hours in the morning in Arabic, and two hours in the evening in French, with dif ferent teachers and books. He learnt how to write classical Arabic, which is very dif ferent from the ‘dialect’ out in the streets and he remembers that they forced him to write with his right hand. In the morning, the very first thing was to learn the alphabet, the vowels, repeating each sound and seeing ‘how it is written’. They drew pictures and put them up on the wall with their names on them. They also learnt their multiplication tables, memorizing them and repeating them at home, first reading the table and then ‘putting it face down’. The teacher, who was ‘like a Little God’, beat him if he did not learn them. He af firms that ‘fear makes you learn more’. There was only one religion subject, one day per week.


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In the evening, they also had maths; they did dictations, they learnt poetry (Victor Hugo) and the ‘famous’ song of Frère Jacques, which he still remembers. For him, ‘Arabic was the easiest’, because the teacher did not always explain everything for all the other subjects and ‘my parents were illiterate’ and could not help. He does not remember having any dif ficulties with the Latin alphabet. At thirteen, he went to Tozeur to study in a college of agriculture in Arabic and with one subject in French. He had also learnt a bit of German and Italian ‘thanks to tourism’, peddling and artisanat [Moroccan handicraft]. He says: ‘listening, you learn; you do not need to see it written’. In the village there are ‘local guides that speak three or four languages very well and they have not learnt them ever’. According to him, ‘when a person speaks [says] a word, you have to catch that word, even though you do not understand it’ [you have to acquire its phonetic form], because then someone will help you learn what it means; ‘that is the most important thing; if you do not learn the sound, you will never learn’. 3. Fatemeh was born in 1979 in Uromieh (in the Iranian province of Western Azerbaijan, beside the Turkish border) and is considered ‘25 per cent Kurdish and 75 per cent Turk-Azeri’. Her parents spoke Azeri to each other, but the home language was Persian. After a year and a half of running away from the violence of the Islamic revolution of Khomeini and the war against Iraq, she settled in Tehran, where she attended an Islamic school for girls at seven years of age, with a white handkerchief covering her hair and a tunic that came down to her knees. She learnt how to read and write in Persian, which is written nowadays with an amplified Arabic alphabet, in italics and from right to left – in spite of the fact that before arabization it had used its own cuneiform alphabet. The first things that she practiced were letters strokes: the teacher drew a shape on the board, with arrows that indicated the movement of the stroke and then students copied it on the notebook, following the points that gave each shape its orientation. Sometimes the teacher took the student by the hand and marked the strokes that they had to follow. There were usually copying activities for homework, where her dad helped her writing with her hand in his. ‘We did not know what we were writing; it was just a shape, a game’. Then they started joining letters and writing words. They learnt letters by order of frequency or importance, such as ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘d’, which formed ab (‘water’), baba (‘dad’, that ‘is the first word Persian people normally learn’) and baba nan dad (‘Dad gave us bread’, that ‘was one of our first sentences, in the past because it’s simpler than in the present’). It is the same ‘in all the of ficial textbooks for the first class’ in the whole country.

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Daniel cassany In class they also recited poetry, because ‘Persia is the country of poetry’. The teacher ‘recited a poem’ from the book or written on the board; ‘Later, we…sometimes we already knew it, but normally they were new poems; we repeated it so many times that in the end you’d remember it’. She also memorized and recited Suras or Quran verses, in classical Arabic, in religion class in front of everybody and every day in the morning to start the day; ‘we only knew we were praying, but not what we were saying’. ‘It is quite common; nowadays there are a lot of grandmothers and young people who recite the Quran, and many religious people that recite the Quran, without knowing its meaning’, who ‘know how to read it because it is the same alphabet’, but ‘who have no idea what it means’. The Quran was the textbook for religion in Iran, with the suras in classical Arabic and its Persian translation beneath it. Then Fatemeh started to learn English in secondary school at twelve; French and Spanish at University and in some jobs in Tehran, and Catalan in Sabadell, with colleagues and friends, where she’s been doing a PhD for the last six years on the literature of exile (she chose to speak to us in Catalan during the interview). In her opinion, ‘it is not necessary to see written words to learn them’; you can recognize an unknown utterance, realize what it means and how people use it – and even to use it yourself – without knowing how to write it; that is what happened to her with the Catalan expression Déu n’hi do [quite]. She was not aware of its etymology or that it consisted of three separate words.

Unquestionably, we cannot make generalizations from only three personal stories, but the details of each of them highlight a global and detailed description of literacy training in the several languages of each informant. Among other things, in China, they do not use the Bopomofo to mediate between character and speech, but ‘pinyin’, which is derived from the Latin alphabet to represent phonetics (while Bopomofo is derived from the same Chinese characters). In the Arabic world, Abderrahman did not attend the Quran school ‘in the village’ (like a ‘kindergarten’ with a ‘nominal price’), in which girls and boys recite the Quran, memorize it and copy it in wooden tables, as a didactic tool to learn how to write, guided by the Imam in the Mosque who is the rightful religious instructor and beats them with an olive tree branch if they do not perform. On the other hand, Fatemeh in Iran did follow a school model with similarities to the Quran schools, in spite of belonging to a culture and language that are typologically very far from Arabic.


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Ortí Teruel (2000) portrays the dif ficulties that reading and writing in Spanish pose to a lot of African Arabians. He dif ferentiates between being totally illiterate and being ágrafo [unable to write] in a Latin alphabet and mentions some of the dif ficulties that this group encounter: graphomotor problems in terms of the direction of writing (Arabic is written from right to left) or related to some of the round strokes (Arabic only uses italics), lack of habit to sit still on a chair for a while or to pay attention to abstract symbols. For these illiterate or limited literacy learners, it is strange to enter a space so literate such as an SFL classroom, with blackboards, posters, maps and other graphic resources. It is also complex to base their SFL learning entirely on a textbook, to have to use grammar and so constantly use the tool of writing. With much more academic instruction and in a dif ferent language context, Fatemeh also had Islamic instruction and still seems to agree with these African learners in their preference for learning strategies based on speech (dialogue, memorization and repetition) to learn a new language. On the other hand, Chiaomei feels at ease with the possibility of using writing as a learning tool. So many years recognizing, ‘drawing’ and writing Chinese characters constitute an important visual and cognitive tool, which may capitalize other language and content learning. Furthermore, it is rather tempting to corroborate that this preference for visual resources and for writing is not in any way related to study and grammar ref lection, in contrast to what happens in many western countries.3 All together, these three brief examples show that previous literacy experiences of foreign language learners can be very diverse. In each community the practice of writing and reading is related to diverse contexts and develops a particular written or recited, memoristic or leisurely use, related to religion, poetry or pastimes: Chiaomei learns to read at school and at home, with the help of her parents; Fatemeh also at school and at home, but with a practice linked to the Quran; Abderrahmán learns how to read and write in Arabic and French at school, but without religion and family help, since his family is illiterate. 3

Weissberg (2000) sums up other important research about the use of speech and writing in the learning of an L2.

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Daniel cassany

These three stories also show how previous literacy experiences inf luence in the way we learn a foreign language and in the use that writing acquires in this process. Chiaomei requires writing to progress in her SFL learning, while Abderrahmán and Fatemeh highlight the importance of spoken language and oral strategies. Undoubtedly, their literacy experience is directly linked to this fact. Consequently, the teaching and learning of a foreign language must take this diversity into account and adapt to the needs and profiles of each learner. Without a doubt, we need to develop SFL proposals that do not depend so much on writing, for those people unable to write, or those who Orti Teruel (2000) identifies as Latin-alphabet illiterate. On the other hand, students who are highly literate like Chiaomei demand a systematic use of writing as a tool to support their verbal learning in general. Moreover, in order to explore, analyse and assess these students’ previous literacy experiences, it would be useful to design a test or a questionnaire that explores their previous literacy experiences (Cassany 2011).

4 Conclusion Case studies about reading in a second language on the Internet, and personal stories about the acquisition of the non-Latin-based writing systems, show the extraordinary diversity of practices of writing and reading that are found in dif ferent contexts and communities. Without any doubt, it is fitting to review and reformulate some of the common underlining ideas, in educational practices to teach reading L2, inherited from a cognitive of reading in L2, inherited from a cognitive view of reading comprehension. Reading is a diverse practice, developed historically and rooted in each cultural context, with its own nuances and particularities. In a globalized and digitalized world like the current one we live in, a socio-cultural perspective of reading allows the detailed description and satisfactory understand of written communicative acts.


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On the other hand, personal stories about the appropriation of writing systems open an enticing line of research about the use of writing in L2, related to personal learning style. These data suggest that the type of literacy practices developed throughout our school life, from childhood, inf luence the preference for more oral (aural, memorization, oral repetition, dialogue) or written strategies (visual memorization, written notes, reading). It is a very relevant issue, considering that Spanish is a very widespread language to which learners from all cultures and communities in the planet have access, so it would be very sensible to develop tools to analyse individual preferences and put forward didactive proposals to meet these preferences.

References Barton, D. and Hamilton, M. (2000). ‘Literacy Practices.’ In Barton, D., Hamilton, M. and Ivanic, R., Situated Literacies: Reading and Writing in Context, 7–15. London: Routledge. Bernhardt, E. (2003). ‘Challenges to Reading Research from a Multilingual World’, Reading Research Quarterly, 38 (1), 112–17. Cassany, D. (2011) ‘La Diversidad Lectora’, in L. Ruiz de Zarobe (ed.), La lectura en lengua extranjera, 102–27. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Portal Educación. Cassany, D. (ed.) (2011). ‘El Español Escrito en Contextos contemporáneos’, Cuadernos Comillas, 1, 1–138 accessed 12 July 2011. Cassany, D. (2008). Prácticas Letradas Contemporáneas. México: Ríos de Tinta. De Ridder, I. (2003). Reading from the Screen in a Second language: Empirical Studies on the Ef fect of Marked Hyperlinks on Incidental Vocabulary Learning, Text Comprehension and The Reading Process. Antwerp: Garant. Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kalman, J. and Street, B.V. (eds) (2010). Lectura, Escritura y Matemáticas como Prácticas Sociales: Diálogos con América Latina México: Siglo XXI. Koda, K. (2005). Insights into Second Language Reading: a Cross-linguistic Approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Kintsch, W. and Rawson, K.A. (2005). ‘Comprehension’. In Snowling, M.J. and Hulme, C. (eds), The Science of Reading: A handbook, 209–26. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2011). New Literacies: Everyday Practices and Classroom Learning. New York: McGraw Hill. Martí, F. (2008). ‘Llegir la Credibilitat dels Webs: Estudi de Cas’, Articles, 59–74. Murillo, N. (2009). ‘La Lectura Crítica en ELE y en Línea. Análisis de la Comprensión Crítica de los Discursos Virtuales’, research Master final work on applied linguistics Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Ortí Teruel, R. (2002). ‘El Aprendizaje de la Lectoescritura en Alumnos Árabohablantes’, LynX, Documentos de Trabajo, 31. Valencia: Centro de Estudios sobre Comunicación Interlingüística e Intercultural. Parodi, G. (ed.) (2010). Alfabetización Académica y Profesional en el Siglo XXI: Leer y Escribir Desde las Disciplinas. Santiago de Chile: Ariel Planeta. Poveda, D., Palomares-Valera, M. and Cano, A. (2006). ‘Literacy Mediations and Mediators in the Escuela Dominical of a Gitano Evangelist Church’, Ethnography and Education Journal, 1 (2), 256–83. Poveda, D. and Sánchez, J.J. (2010). ‘Las Prácticas y Estilos de Literacidad de los Adolescentes Fuera de la Escuela: Una Exploración Cuantitativa de las Relaciones entre Literacidad, Escolarización y Origen Familiar’, Sociolinguistic Studies, 4(1), 85–114. Wallace, C. (1988). Learning to Read in a Multicultural Society: the Social Context of Second Language Literacy. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. Weissberg, B. (2000). ‘Developmental Relationships in the Aquisition of English Syntax: Writing vs. Speech’, Learning and Instruction, 10(1), 37–53. Zavala, V. (2002). (Des)Encuentros con la Escritura. Escuela y Comunidad en los Andes Peruanos. Lima: Red para el Desarrollo de las Ciencias Sociales en el Perú. Zavala, V. and Córdova, G. (2010). Decir y Callar. Lenguaje, Equidad y Poder en la Universidad Peruana. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Zavala, V., Niño-Murcia, M. and Ames, P. (eds) (2004). Escritura y Sociedad: Nuevas Perspectivas Teóricas y Etnográficas. Lima: Red para el Desarrollo de las Ciencias Sociales en el Perú.

Henrik Gottlieb


1 Foreignization: The Trojan Horse in Translation (Studies)? The world over, teachers and scholars of translation have in recent decades turned to what I would call the dogma of foreignization; a set of beliefs favouring a markedly source-culture oriented macrostrategy in translation. A firm believer in this dogma is American translator-cum-scholar, Lawrence Venuti. Born in Philadelphia – and with an Italian family background – Venuti has long advocated this foreignizing strategy and spoken against what he calls domestication. He has translated Italian, Catalan and French literature into English and his seminal theoretical works, The Translator’s Invisibility (1995) and The Scandals of Translation (1998), have had a tremendous impact internationally. Still, most professional translators apply target-culture oriented strategies in their work and thus stay ‘invisible’, much to the chagrin of pro-Venuti scholars. In this paper, I intend to ‘reverse Venuti’ and defend such domesticating strategies, especially when dealing with translation from English into socalled ‘minor’ languages. In a ‘major’ speech community, which in today’s world of translation and language teaching means an Anglophone one – yet with a mere 5 per cent of the world’s population as native speakers – the strategy suggested by Venuti and his followers makes sense. Out of respect for other cultures and authors, and with translations constituting less than 4 per cent of the American book market (cf. Table 2), a foreignizing attitude to translation would indeed be praiseworthy in the USA, although perhaps lead to even lower sales of imported book and film titles.

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However – and this is the irony of it – most of the voices advocating foreignizing strategies in translation are found outside Anglo-American circles, and by alienating themselves from domesticating strategies, they perpetuate the very trend that Venuti is arguing against. Everywhere outside the Anglo world, foreignizing strategies – and thus visibility in translation – would mean enhancing the English impact on languages and people already exposed to Anglo-American culture. This is exactly the opposite of the agenda of Venuti and his followers, which is to ‘advocate foreignizing translation in opposition to the Anglo-American tradition of domestication’ (Venuti 1995: 23). To paraphrase Venuti, the tragedy of translation is found whenever those teaching and translation methods that support ‘minor’ languages and literatures in a dominant speech community (America and Britain) are used in speech communities dominated by English. One of the few voices raised against the uncritical transfer of Venuti’s foreignization agenda from dominant to dominated speech communities, American-based translation scholar Maria Tymoczko points out the local character of Venuti’s doctrine: Venuti’s normative stance about foreignizing and resistant translation is highly specific in its cultural application; it pertains to translation in powerful countries in the West in general and to translation in the United States in particular. Venuti has been criticized for not of fering a theory that is transitive, that can be applied to translation in smaller countries, in countries that are at a disadvantage in hierarchies of economic and cultural prestige and power. In this sense his approach is not applicable to translation in postcolonial countries. Indeed the methods he proposes for achieving resistance would in those circumstances lead to the further erosion of cultural autonomy and power. (Tymoczko 2000: 38)

Is it worth pointing out that this non-applicability of Venuti’s agenda stretches from postcolonial countries to former colonial powers: neither Spain nor France, Germany or Russia would be well served by systematically foreignizing translations of English-language material, including books, films, video games and news items. As phrased by Spanish translation scholar Roberto Valdeón: ‘In news production at least, English might have evolved from being a window to the world to becoming a linguistic, cultural and political Trojan horse’ (Valdeón 2007: 166).


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2 Domestication vs. Foreignization: A Matter of Degrees The fact that one strategy is problematic in a given context should not automatically lead one to choosing the opposite strategy. Neither foreignized nor domesticated translations display only microstrategies helping to achieve one or the other extreme, and many factors have a say in the final decision made – consciously or not – by the agents involved in the translational process. In the following, I will project the results of two studies from minor European speech communities onto a cline ranging from 100 per cent foreignization to 100 per cent domestication. First, we need to consider which factors determine the degree of domestication in translation: 1. Status of the source text (and its author, language and culture) 2. Knowledge of the source language and culture in the target culture 3. Target audience composition and preferences 4. Types and frequencies of localisms in the source text 5. Language policies (purist vs. liberal) in the target culture 6. Attitude of the translator and/or commissioner, publisher, etc. Starting with Lithuania, a speech community known for its conservative language policies, only 32 per cent of the adult population know English ‘well enough to have a conversation’ (European Commission 2006: 12). Here, a study on the subtitling of the American animated cartoon, Ratatouille, showed that of 135 culture-specific items in the American film, only twenty items were translated using foreignizing or mixed strategies, while domesticating strategies were used by the subtitler in 115 cases, representing 85 per cent of all culture-specific items in the original ( Judickaitė 2009). In Denmark, a society known for its open attitude to foreign linguistic inf luence, 86 per cent of the adult population speak English (European Commission 2006: 12). Here, a study comparing ‘upstream translation’ (moving from minor to major-speech community) with ‘downstream translation’ (Gottlieb 2009a), found a picture quite dif ferent than that of the Lithuanian study. The results of an analysis of five Danish films subtitled upstream by native speakers of English and two American films subtitled by

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Henrik Gottlieb

Danes were as follows: 66 per cent of all Anglo-American culture-specific items were rendered in the Danish subtitles via foreignizing strategies, against an average of 44 per cent of the Danish culture-specific items foreignized in upstream (Danish-English) subtitling – the latter figure representing a range from 25 to 65 per cent among the five Danish films. Hardly surprising, the English subtitles of Danish films displayed considerably fewer ‘foreignisms’ than did the Danish subtitles of the American films. Yet, neither the Anglophone nor the Danish-speaking subtitlers subscribed fully to one of the two contestants, foreignization vs. domestication. As expressed in an early study on culture-specific items in translation: The analysis of specific examples showed a tendency, possibly norm-governed, to retain the local colour of the film and to remain faithful to the source language when this did not cause problems of comprehension. (Nedergaard-Larsen 1993: 238)

The paper cited here discussed subtitling from French into Danish and Swedish, e.g. downstream subtitling (although the current may not be as strong as in the case of subtitling from English).1

3 English and the Lopsidedness of Translation: A Quantitative Overview Whereas in so-called minor speech communities, translations constitute a major part of the national textual output – and of people’s informative input – the situation is quite dif ferent in major speech communities: ‘In the most central languages, translations are few, the translator does not have a very high status, and the translation norms derive from indigenous literary standards’ (Heilbron 2010). 1

A major study on Scandinavian subtitling (Pedersen 2011) compares Danish and Swedish practices regarding the subtitling of culture-specific items in one hundred anglophone productions.


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Although English serves as a relay language – a term to be defined later – for translations between ‘minor’ languages, translations make up a very small part of the total f low of information in the English-speaking countries. In the UK and the US, translated books and films address a narrow, elitist audience – as opposed to the situation in more ‘peripheral’ countries in which translations often represent high entertainment value and are thus enjoyed by all segments of the population. This imbalance is obvious when comparing the following statistics2 regarding book translations: Table 2 Importance of Translations Country

Share of published book titles that are translations

USA

2–4%

UK

2–4%

Germany

12–18%

France

12–18%

Denmark

> 30%

The Netherlands

34%

The structural imbalance does not stop here: Not only are non-English speaking countries more open to translations than are Anglophone countries, English is by far the dominant source language of translations the world over:

2

Figures in Table 2 are based on UNESCO’s Index Translationum (2010), Heilbron (2010) and DBC (2010).

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Henrik Gottlieb Table 3 Importance of English in Translations Language

Source language of published book titles that are translations*

English

55–60%

German

10%

French

10%

Russian

1–3%

Spanish

1–3%

Italian

1–3%

Chinese

< 1%

Arabic

<1%

Japanese

<1%

* Figures (based on Heilbron 2010) refer to the situation prior to 2000, after which date the Russian share will have dropped.

However striking the dominance of English may seem, the target languages of all translations from English are anything but English, and the neverfailing Anglophone output of books – let alone films, TV programmes, news items and other texts – to be translated helps keep the respective target languages alive. As pointed out in a recent paper on the English impact on the Danish language (Gottlieb forthcoming), the English inf luence on a local culture may be even stronger if translations are not typically from English anymore – simply because an increasingly bilingual population turn from reading translations (of English-language titles) to reading Anglophone authors in English. This was pointed out already in 1996 by Danish novelist and translator, Annette Lindegaard: The tendency is clear: a rapidly growing number of Danes read English almost as well as they do Danish. This phenomenon is also ref lected in sales figures for literature. Danes have long since discovered that it is cheaper to buy English paperbacks than Danish translations, much to the chagrin of Danish publishers. (Lindegaard 1996: 154)

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Although the diminishing share of translations from English could be explained as the result of a lessened interest in Anglo-Americans authors, the stats shown in Table 4 – based on information from Dansk BiblioteksCenter (DBC 2010)3 – may also support Lindegaard’s assumption: Table 4 Importance of English Translations in Denmark

Translated from:

Number (and share) of book titles translated into Danish 1975

1985

1994

2004

2010

English

707 (48%)

937 (54%)

1429 (66%)

1908 (65%)

1603 (60%)

Swedish or Norwegian

241 (16.5%)

278 (16%)

306 (14%)

510 (17%)

471 (18%)

German

195 (13.5%)

196 (11%)

139 (6%)

146 (5%)

190 (7%)

French

124 (8.5%)

157 (9%)

136 (6%)

163 (5%)

136 (5%)

Other languages

195 (13.5%)

175 (10%)

144 (7%)

224 (8%)

261 (10%)

All translations

1462

1743

2154

2951

2661

Following up on the argument that decreasing shares of English translations in a national book market may mean more, rather than less, English inf luence, the number of English-language books sold in Denmark is considerable, although – not least owing to the large numbers of books bought online – impossible to assess. However, reading books and other texts in English may have consequences for a Dane, as testified by this student – one of many contributors to a Danish blog ‘Why read in English?’ (available at ):

3

More detailed 2010 figures available at: .

44

Henrik Gottlieb Now that I mostly read in English, I sometimes find it hard to translate the English words into Danish. If, for instance, one of my English teachers asks what an English word means, I sometimes totally forget what it means in Danish, but I can easily understand it in English; I just don’t really know how to express it in Danish. (Cæcilie, 31 March 2011; my translation)

Comparing the share of English book translations in Denmark with that of another minor Germanic-speaking nation, The Netherlands, we get the following statistics (based on Heilbron 2010 and DBC 2010): Table 5 Provenance of Books Translated into Danish/Dutch

Translated from:

Country of publication Denmark

The Netherlands

English

60%

75%

Swedish or Norwegian

18%

–

German

7%

8%

French

5%

7%

Other languages

10%

10%

Interestingly, while the share of German, French and ‘other’ languages are almost identical in the two countries, English possesses a much higher share of the titles translated in the Netherlands, where Swedish and Norwegian originals play a smaller part than in Denmark.4 However, whether Dutchmen are more exposed to translations from English than Danes cannot be ascertained here. Looking at Denmark again, this time in retrospect, the dominance of English as a source language is staggering, as shown in Table 6.

4

In these years, the international popularity of Scandinavian crime novels may change this picture – as it may have had a role in diminishing the share of English-language originals, as displayed in Table 4.


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Table 6 Languages Translated into Danish (1979–2005) Translated from:

Number of book titles

1. English

34,891

2. Swedish

6,500

3. German

4,294

4. French

3,177

5. Norwegian

2,429

6. Spanish

687

7. Dutch

640

8. Russian

583

9. Italian

558

10. Japanese

315

Once more, the focus is on titles rather than copies sold. The latter approach would be at least as relevant, but Danish book publishers never reveal circulation figures, neither for translations nor for original Danish titles. Nothing indicates, however, that translations from English5 should be less popular than translations from the other languages ranked in Table 6. Before leaving the field of book translation, we will present a brief comparison of the relative importance of translations in the UK and US versus a minor speech community, once more exemplified by Denmark (with data based on UNESCO’s Index Translationum). Regarding imports, we find a pronounced lack of symmetry: In 2009, for example, Britain and America published 2,167 translated book titles, while Denmark published 1,758 titles – almost as many. However, per million native speakers of English and Danish, respectively, this amounts to 351 translations in Denmark, against 21 in the UK and a meagre 4 in the US. On the export side, things are surprisingly symmetrical – with 29,401 English-language and 532 Danish titles translated annually, yielding some 5

Danish translations of titles by American authors often present themselves as ‘Oversat fra amerikansk’ [translated from American] – as if American (English) was a language in its own right.

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100 exported titles per million speakers from Denmark, with largely the same number of exports per capita from Britain and America together. Moving on to including all types of translation from English, and shifting from a production to a reception point of view, Table 7 illustrates a bewildering multiplicity of potential impact from Anglophone texts on Danish hearts and minds. Table 7 Translations from English in Denmark (2010 estimates)6 Per capita consumption of translations from English English-original share of total consumption

Daily intake

Fiction: 40%

3 minutes

Books and Magazines

Non-fiction: 30%

3 minutes

Articles and interviews: 10%

2 minutes

Manuals

Documentation: 50%

2 minutes

Newspapers

Articles and news items: 15%

3 minutes

Radio

Drama and news items: 5%

1 minute

Theater

Plays: 25%

1 minute

Television

Films and series: 70% Documentaries and shows: 25% News items and interviews: 20%

37 minutes* 15 minutes

DVD and downloads

Films and series: 60%

Cinema

Films: 70%

1 minute

Web sources

Written info and mixed genres: 10%

6 minutes

All media

74 minutes

* This figure covers the accumulated duration of the Danish subtitles in anglophone programmes watched by an average viewer – who in 2010 watched TV for 201 minutes a day. 6

Estimates are extrapolations of figures in Gottlieb (1996), partly based on stats from SFI (The Danish National Centre for Social Research); TV-related figures are based on data from Danmarks Statistik available at: . No detailed empirical studies on Danish consumer habits regarding translation exist.


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In mere quantitative terms, Anglo-American TV productions make up an impressive 50 per cent of the Danish consumption of translations: thirtyseven out of seventy-four minutes a day – plus some fifteen minutes of non-broadcast films and series. Also in terms of the English qualitative impact on Danish – and even on languages spoken in dubbing countries – does screen translation seem to play a very active role (Gottlieb 1999, 2001, 2005). In subtitling from English, one may expect more pronounced anglification than in dubbing: Subtitles are an aid to foreignization in that they maintain the linguistic alterity of what is on the screen, the soundtrack of language matching the identity of the image. What you see is what you hear. There is no attempt in ef fect to of fer the domestic comforts of dubbing. (Cronin 2009: 106)

Yet, as shown in Herbst 1994 and Gottlieb 2001, the media-specific constraints of dubbing often lead to parroting English syntax, resulting in (even) more anglified dialogue than that typically found in the subtitles of Anglophone voices (Gottlieb 1999).7 Judging from the time spent watching Anglophone programmes and films among non-English speaking populations worldwide, it may now be a universal fact that compared with book and other print media, the major English footprint in translation is found in audiovisual productions, whether broadcast or online, on smartphones, in cinema theaters or on DVD.8

7

8

This English-wins-them-all phenomenon seems to be found even in broadcasting aimed at promoting a truly minor language: Irish. Programmes in Irish thus tend to be ‘reinforcing English’ due to the semiotic superiority of ‘the stronger visual/written mode’ (O’Connell 2011: 173). On this and other language-political issues in screen translation, see Gottlieb (2004).

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4 The Notion of ‘Minor Language’ Having now had a look at some numerical relations between English, a dominant, major language, and so-called minor languages regarding translations from and into English, it is time to scrutinize the notion of ‘minor’ languages. Perhaps some observers will believe that by the term ‘minor language’ is implied ‘minor in lexical scope’. Although this is not what is meant, it is still a common misconception (even among scholars) that ‘minor’ languages – in line with the so-called ‘lesser-used’ ones – are poorer than ‘major’ languages when it comes to lexis. Interestingly, this widespread notion seems never to have been tested empirically. Using, again, as our points of reference the languages Danish and English, almost all Danes believe that English has more words, and thus, allows for more stylistic variation than Danish. This is most likely caused by a centuries-old linguistic inferiority complex fueled by, as a Danish professor of English has observed (Davidsen-Nielsen 2009), at least two factors recognized by all well-educated Danes: (1) English is a world language spoken by at least 750 million people while Danish is spoken only by some 5 million Danes, and (2) the English lexicon stems from two dif ferent sources, i.e. Germanic and Romance vocabulary, which means that often two or more words denote the same entity, thus making room for more nuances in the language. What such observers overlook is the fact that Danish, too, very often has a multitude of synonyms, with loanwords from German and other ‘southern’ languages mixed in with the original Nordic lexicon. Having in the past century absorbed some 10,000 Anglicisms (Gottlieb 2002) – many of them synonyms to existing Danish expressions – Danish is very rarely at a loss for words in comparison with English, although some Danes may feel this when translating from English. However, this sense of the target language not presenting the precise match for a source-language item is not unique to English-Danish translation, or even typical of major-intominor language operations. As the semantic grids in any two languages are


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bound to dif fer, there are no perfect matches, and the translator will often feel that none of the available (near-)synonyms is truly equivalent.9 In an attempt to challenge the assumption that English has a richer working vocabulary than Danish, a recent study (Larsen 2010) looked at corpus frequencies of 400 randomly selected words from standard monolingual dictionaries. It turned out that only 225 English words of the 400 were found in the British National Corpus (with 100 million running words) while as many as 373 of the 400 randomly selected Danish words were found in the comparable Korpus DK (with 56 million words). Adding to this, a larger share of the English words documented in the corpus were very rare: This dif ference cannot only be explained by the fact that there are more rare words among the English words – there must also be more extremely rare words among the rare English words than among the rare Danish words. It is possible that this can help explain why English is perceived as having a larger lexicon than Danish. Many extremely rare words could give foreigners learning English (and probably many native speakers as well) the impression that they keep encountering words that they have never seen before, more so than in other languages, e.g., Danish. This impression could perhaps lead them to conclude that English must have a larger lexicon than other languages. (Larsen 2010: 18)

Returning to the question of how to define ‘minor language’ – a notion used haphazardly, it seems – I would suggest a relative definition that measures the dif ferences in prestige and power between two or more languages in a given situation, translational or other. For example, in South Africa, Zulu is a minor language in relation to English – although it has nearly three times as many native speakers as English. In relation to Ndebele, spoken by only some 700,000 South Africans, Zulu is a major language. Similarly, French is major in Francophone Africa, but has become minor in the EU – just like German, the home language of far more Europeans than those living on the British Isles. 9

In certain subdomains, e.g. personal pronouns and kinship terms, English is renowned for its semantic voids in comparison with other European languages. For example, English uses the same word, ‘grandmother’, for both ‘mormor’ and ‘farmor’ (the Danish terms for your mother’s and your father’s mother, respectively). And for lack of a second-person plural pronoun, the expression ‘you guys’ is now sometimes used, although often considered substandard by native (British) speakers of English.

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Even Danish is not always a minor language. In Greenland, a former Danish colony, Danish is still an of ficial language, major to the Inuit language spoken by most inhabitants. English alone is an exception from this law of relativity: In this day and age, English is never ‘minor’. In addition to the overall prestige of English worldwide, this unique power is corroborated by the following facts: • America and Britain produce large amounts of books, magazines, films and TV • English access to overseas markets through translations is well established • More and more people(s) speak and read English • English functions as a (relay) filter in translations between ‘minor’ languages: from periphery (e.g. Hindi) to centre (English) to periphery (e.g. Italian) The potential hubris-like consequences of this undisturbed monopoly as the world’s only never-minor language have recently produced the following attitudes in major segments of the Anglo-American populations: • We don’t need to read translations • We don’t need foreign-language movies (whether dubbed or subtitled) • We don’t need to learn foreign languages (we use Google Translate and expect foreigners to speak our language) Until these attitudes, like in a Greek tragedy, may have toppled the hegemony of English, the foreignizing agenda of Venuti and others will have sinister consequences when applied downstream, in translations from, and not into, English.


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5 The Notion of ‘Invisibility’10 Following up on another Venuti favourite, the term ‘invisibility’, far from being useful only when discussing strategies in literary translation, is a fairly accurate description of the nature of a quite dif ferent entity, news translation.11 As opposed to overt types of translation, including interpreting, subtitling and literary translation, print news translation is typically covert. As readers have no immediate access to the original, the translator operates with more degrees of freedom than usually found in translation or interpreting – so much freedom, in fact, that one may classify news translation as adaptational translation (as defined in Gottlieb 2008: 43 f f.), or as ‘doubly invisible’ (Bielsa 2010: 45). Usually, the author or authors of a news item remain anonymous, and the translator-journalist freely adapts the text to accommodate target-culture readers or viewers, as explained by a journalist/translator from the IRIB news agency in Tehran: ‘[L]iterary translation and source-text-oriented approaches instill in students a respect for the source-text lexis and structure, which proves counterproductive in news translation, which is target-recipient oriented’ (Hajmohammadi 2005: 217). As in Iran, news ‘translators’ in Europe view themselves as mediators and editors rather than loyal translators of someone else’s communication. And generally, ‘news agencies do not tend to employ translators as such. This is because translation is not conceived as separate from other journalistic tasks of writing up and editing’ (Bielsa 2007: 136). One might say that news translation represents a paradox: almost total invisibility of the translational act, combined with full visibility of the agent denying the act and claiming authorship of elements clearly sampled from other sources. News translation is the ultimate realization of what is possible when utilizing the skopos principle to design the translation for the end consumer, regardless of the features of the original text: 10 11

Parts of the following section are based on Gottlieb (2010a). This somewhat overlooked type of translation is the focus in Valdeón (ed.) (2010).

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Henrik Gottlieb In translating news, bilingual journalists edit, rewrite, synthesize, add and alter information for specific audiences according to journalistic conventions and the criteria of news relevance and background knowledge of the target readers, thus ef fectively shaping the news in important ways. (Bielsa 2009: 17)

This extreme target-reader orientation might be lamented by translation purists only, but most observers, whether lay readers or scholars, may agree with Roberto Valdeón that texts that are ‘merely translations of English news’ will come out as ‘poor target texts’ (Valdeón 2005: 266). Without ‘localising news in terms of style and content’ the national media will ‘promote globalized parochialism’ (ibid). Still, in order to analyse the balance between ‘original’ and ‘less original’ content in news items – and certainly the type of domestication, including political bias and other modifications made vis-à-vis the original – breaking down news articles into relevant categories will be necessary, albeit dif ficult. It has been argued that it is ‘almost impossible to deconstruct a news message in order to determine which parts have been edited and which parts are the results of a translation act’ (van Doorslaer 2009: 85). Still, it may be worth the while to do just that, categorizing the various non-original parts according to their degree of visibility as translations. In Table 8 below, the types of translation found in printed (news) media are listed, with special attention to their visibility as translations. I have supplemented the well-known dichotomy of overt vs. covert translation with a type even less recognizable as translation than covert translation, a type I will dub ‘pseudo-original’. Unlike pseudo-translations, which are original texts claimed by their authors and publishers to be translations – from a high-status language and/or of a high-status genre (Toury 1995) – pseudo-originals are texts in which all elements seem to originate in the language used by a given author/journalist but are in reality amalgamations of text elements originating in more than one language. Amalgamated elements include original text by the author, interviews conducted in a foreign language and then translated by the author and foreign news telegrams (often embedded texts in their own right) translated by the author or a news agency.


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Categorized by their varying degrees of visibility to the end reader, the three types of translation display the characteristics presented in Table 8. Table 8 Types of Print Media Translation Type of categorization

Translational type

Visibility

Overt translation

Covert translation

Pseudo-original

Type of translation

Bona fide translation

Localization

Embedding: translated elements embedded in targetlanguage text

Agents credited

Original author and translator credited

Translator/editor listed as author

Translator/author listed as author

A similar sort of invisibility, often found in literary translation into ‘minor’ languages, pertains to the possibility of manipulating the source text content. In most media, whether monosemiotic (e.g. literature) or polysemiotic (e.g. films), translation always (as in the case of books) or often (as in dubbed TV and film) means that what the translator does to the source text is, in principle, invisible. Whereas the subtitler’s translational actions are visible to viewers with just a slight command of the original language, the film dubber and the literary translator may reshape the original text in all possible ways. This is not to say that such translations are covert; they will nearly always be presented as translations. But they may still be highly manipulated regarding content – sometimes to the extent found when ‘commercial’ novels are condensed in order to lower printing and distribution expenses and thus gain shares in the national book market. To cite just one example of this general, but largely unchartered, phenomenon: When John Grisham’s bestseller, The Firm, was translated into Danish in 1993 – following the success of the screen adaptation of the novel – the text was abridged by more than 20 per cent. By discreetly eliminating most of the ‘dif ficult’ passages of the novel, the translator created a work shallower than the original, but by doing so made a book that could be sent to book

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Henrik Gottlieb

club members at modest postage costs. The only warning of this manipulation was a line in small print on the title page, saying euphemistically ‘Nænsomt forkortet efter aftale med forfatteren’ [considerately abridged in agreement with the author].

6 Relay Translation: A Symptom of Imbalance In the whirlpool of international text exchange, a translation in language B of a text originally written in language A very often operates in an indirect fashion, using a third language, C, as a relay in the process.12 This is typically found in situations where either language A or B is relatively minor. Indeed, whenever both A and B are minor languages, relay translation seems to be the rule rather than the exception. One may even consider defining the degree of ‘minorness’ in a language by the share of translations of its literary and cinematographic titles released abroad that owe their existence to relay translation. A typical example of relay translation between ‘exotic’ languages is found when Japanese manga cartoons are translated into Danish. As competent Danish translators of Japanese are few, and Japanese translators wellversed in Danish are non-existent, a major Western language may serve as relay. When, for instance, the Dragon Ball cartoons were translated, the German translation was used as a stepping stone on the way to the Danish target version (according to the Danish translator, Jakob Halskov). More importantly, as mentioned earlier, international news items are typically mediated across the world’s languages in English. This enables audiences in speech communities with no mutual understanding of each other’s languages to gain an insight into important events in ‘remote’ countries – the only snag being, of course, that such communication is filtered through English, with the linguistic, cultural and political implications this may have. 12

For a more detailed discussion of relay translation, see Dollerup (2000).


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In a Danish context, we have a tradition for direct translation of all texts – whether novels, films or news items – written or spoken in (at least) Norwegian, Swedish, German, English and French. So far, relay translation has been limited to texts from ‘exotic’ languages, including texts in minor Slavonic languages, African languages and most Asian languages. This may change, however, as the dominance of English keeps becoming more pronounced while the Danes’ competences in foreign languages other than English deteriorate (cf. Gottlieb 2009b). As is the case of any translation, a relay translation from a language with high lexical specification within a given semantic field into a language with less potential for variation may produce an impoverished text. This is sad, but dif ficult to remedy for the translator working directly from language A to B. Using language C as a relay between two languages with equally high semantic specification is more than just sad and may be detrimental to the content and style of the work in question. An example of this type of impoverishment is the findings in Hilwerda (2000), a study on the subtitling of the Danish Dogme 95 film, Festen (aka The Celebration), into Dutch. The scarcity of English pronouns (mentioned elsewhere in this paper) meant that not only were important Danish distinctions – between one and more addressees, and between polite and intimate forms of address, cf. French ‘tu/vous’ – lost in the English relay deconstruction; they were not reinstated in the Dutch target version, although Dutch usage operates with distinctions similar to those used in the Danish source dialog. Another study (Zilberdik 2004) also deals with the relay translation of Festen, this time into Hebrew – again, via English. In her discussion on culture-specific phenomena, Nan Zilberdik embraces both languageinternal and -external entities, and her study shows that in the Hebrew version of Festen there are ‘several features, notably swearing and culturebound phenomena (here indicating class) that are particularly liable to mistranslation and condensation’ (ibid.: 53). Having acknowledged that the polysemiotic nature of film means that ‘isolated errors in translation may not be crucial to the understanding of the character (or the film)’, Zilberdik concludes: ‘I still find that the humans portrayed tend to become more mainstream’ (ibid.: 53).

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This testimony of mainstreaming the original verbal content fits with another study of (relay) screen translation (Grigaravičiūtė, Gottlieb 1999), in which ‘excentric’ cultural references and dialogue features – including slang and swear words – were standardized in what could be described as a centripetal motion in two steps; from Danish to English (the English translation serving only as a pivot to the Lithuanian translator) and then from English into Lithuanian. This domesticating movement toward the centre is echoed by Lawrence Venuti, correctly emphasizing the ability of the translator to ‘choose to redirect the ethnocentric movement of translation so as to decenter the domestic terms that a translation project must inescapably utilize’ (Venuti 1998: 82).

7 Translations from English as Instruments of Language Change In most minor speech communities, and in several major ones, the present dominance of Anglo-American culture is recognized as having a huge impact on the way national cultures languages change these years. The alleged language change due to English inf luence is generated by three dif ferent, but connected, factors: 1. Most opinion leaders are dependent on English as a second language, both for personal communication and for information gathering – and most citizens in a number of so-called non-English speaking countries rely heavily on their English competence when gaming, surfing the Internet, listening to pop and rock songs and watching subtitled TV series, movies and videos. 2. English is unrivaled as a cover-all language: the first language in which new technology, trends and lifestyles are presented – and a language increasingly used internationally as a lingua franca, even when no native speakers of English are present.


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3. As discussed earlier, a significant part of the media input in the modern world consists of texts translated or in some other way derived from English sources. In academic and business communication, the national cultures and/or languages are losing domains. Today, in countries like Denmark, the credo ‘certain things are best expressed in English’ is not only heard among blasé cosmopolitans; it is often uttered by government of ficials and businessmen, even by school children.

8 Translationese and the Impact of English Among scholars, there is widespread disagreement regarding the term ‘translationese’. In 1993, Mona Baker, an early advocate of an empirical approach to Translation Studies, used this term for the type of language found in translations where an ‘unusual distribution of features is clearly a result of the translator’s inexperience or lack of competence in the target language’ (Baker 1993: 248). By this definition, in the following referred to as definition A, one should expect to find translationese mainly in translations into the translator’s foreign language (also known as L2). Translations into the mother tongue of the translator (L1) should, accordingly, not yield many instances of translationese. As will be seen below, this is not the case. For that reason, the above definition is not optimal for our purposes. A second, and wider, definition of ‘translationese’ – here termed definition B – of fered by Johansson and Hof land (1994: 26), and also used by Schmied and Schäf f ler (1996: 44) and Ebeling (1998), defines this concept as ‘deviance in translated texts induced by the source language’. According to Schmied and Schäf f ler (1996: 45–6), translationese thus covers three related phenomena: 1. ‘structures which are typical of translated language, but which do not result from SL interference’, phenomena such as ‘higher explicitness of the translated text, disambiguation, simplification’ and ‘a tendency to avoid repetitions’.

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2. ‘system errors’ which ‘will in most cases be inf luenced by SL (Source Language) structures’. 3. ‘structures which follow the system of the source language, but which deviate from the norm’. As this paper is concerned with, firstly, the impact of the ‘Major’ of all major languages (English) in relation to ‘minor’ languages (with Danish serving as a test case) and, secondly, with the role of translations in contemporary language change, only subcategories (2) and (3) will be of interest here. Definition A above, focusing on the translator’s incompetence, and definition B, covering general translational features, have two traits in common: they see translationese as something restricted to translations, and they encompass translations in any direction (into as well as from L1) between any pair of languages. For our purpose, neither of these definitions is suited, since: 1. In terms of impact and scope, the consequences of translation from a minor language like Danish into English are worlds apart from those regarding English-into-Danish translation. 2. When discussing the consequences of translation from a major into a minor language, not only translated texts must be taken into account. As is well known, in non-Anglophone languages the impact of English is not only felt in translations. Also a wide range of ‘indigenous’ texts display features caused by English inf luence.13 Taken together, this means that we need a third definition of the concept of translationese. Such a definition – in the following referred to as definition C – is provided by Swedish linguist Martin Gellerstam, who in his seminal study ‘Translationese in Swedish novels translated from English’ presented the

13

Among the thousands of sources documenting this, major recent ones include Görlach (ed.) (2002), Anderman and Rogers (eds) (2005), Onysko (2007), Fischer and Pułaczewska (eds) (2008), and Furiassi (2010).


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term in this way: ‘In this paper I use translationese in reference to what I mean to be systematic inf luence on target language (TL) from source language (SL), or at least generalizations of some kind based on such inf luence’ (Gellerstam 1986: 88).14 Although preceding definitions A and B, definition C is more radical and ‘contemporary’ – and certainly more useful for our purposes – in the sense that it focuses on what happens in a minor (target) language as a possible result of translation, not merely on what is found in the translated texts themselves (definitions A and B). In addition to the potential invisibility of the translator mentioned above, there is the question of what may be termed ‘the invisibility of translationese’. An example of translationese – in the widest sense, as found in definition C above – encountered in a minor speech community is the proliferation of ‘invisible’ target-language features under the inf luence of the dominant language. Using once more the language pair English and Danish for exemplification, we see that this inf luence may be found at several levels: 1. Orthography: Adapted spelling (‘splejse’ < splice; nørd < nerd) 2. Phonology: Adapted pronunciation (‘database’; with four Danish vowels) 3. Semantics: Extended meaning (‘omfavne’ < embrace (a policy, etc.)) 4. Morphology: Loan translations (‘kernefamilie’ < nuclear family) 5. Phraseology: Morphosyntactic calques (‘når det kommer til’ + noun phrase < when it comes to + NP) 6. Pragmatics: English-inspired discourse (‘Jeg elsker dig’ < I love you (meaning ‘goodbye’).

14 Later, Gellerstam used the expression ‘fingerprints in translation’ for the type of translationese represented by definition B, categories 1 and 2, above (Gellerstam 2005).

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9 The Contemporary Scene: Translationese without Translations In modern Western societies, the English inf luence on the general population through their daily contacts with translated and Anglophone products, is a well-described fact (Gottlieb 2005). The English impact is enhanced by the uncoordinated yet ef fective pincer movement of two disparate groups: Exerting pressure from the top of society, we have the mainstream intellectual and business elite, who are all used to communicating in English. Advancing from the fringes and the bottom of society, we witness a number of American-inspired ‘underdog’ subcultures not (yet) part of the elite, e.g. young computer nerds and hiphop milieus. The synergic ef fects on the average language user of this somewhat unholy alliance have now for some time been the object of academic studies in Scandinavia (e.g. Ljung 1988, Preisler 2003, Lønsmann 2009). But before these studies, yet in line with contemporary corpus-based translation research, we find the previously mentioned study (Gellerstam 1986) that played an important part in moving Scandinavian Translation Studies away from sheer prescriptivism. In his 1986 paper (also referred to in Gellerstam 2005), he compared the vocabulary of twenty-seven novels translated from English (T novels) with that of twenty-nine original Swedish novels (O novels), all fifty-six novels published in Sweden in 1976. Gellerstam (1986: 91–2) made the following generalizations: 1. English loanwords are significantly more common in the T novels than in the O novels. Examples (given by Gellerstam): chans, charm, chock [chance, charm, shock]. 2. Swedish colloquialisms are significantly less common in the T novels than in the O novels: farsan/morsan [daddy/mummy]. 3. Many English words trigger Swedish standard (often less idiomatic) equivalents in the T novels: anlända (formal word for ‘arrive’) instead of komma, etc.


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4. ‘International’ words are used in the T novels in their English, less literal senses: drastisk, lokal, massiv [drastic, local, massive]. 5. Semantic or collocational distinctions absent in English tend not to be restored in the T novels, e.g. the nuances between begripa, fatta and förstå (covering the semantic field of ‘realize’, ‘grasp’ and ‘understand’) are not fully represented. The latter of Gellerstam’s findings is by no means limited to translations from English, but exemplifies a universal loss in translation found between any two languages, as mentioned in an earlier section of this paper. In the next sections, I will compare Gellerstam’s findings based on material from the 1970s with what seemed to be the situation concerning translationese in Danish translated novels of the late 1990s, judging from a corpus-based study of Danish literary translations from English.15 As will be demonstrated, several of the phenomena described above seem to have penetrated contemporary Danish original novels as well – not to speak of the news genres discussed above. In Gellerstam’s words: [translated] fiction is probably not the best domain for studying this group of words especially if your aim is to study the phenomenon as such rather than to find instances of translationese. A normal Swedish newspaper (leading articles, book reviews or political comments) will probably be an even better source […] The English language is there all the same, somewhere in the back of the journalist’s mind, in the shape of telegrams and foreign magazines and newspapers. (Gellerstam 1986: 93; my italics)

Turning back to our Danish study following up on Gellerstam’s 1986 paper, below are the findings related to each of the generalizations Gellerstam made, cf. points 1–5 above: 1. The notion that English loanwords are significantly more common in translations than in originals is not generally supported in our data. Danish originals of the late nineties seem to contain more English loanwords – i.e. established Anglicisms no longer to be considered 15

For a detailed report of this unpublished study (Gottlieb 2000), please contact the author at [email protected].

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translationese – than Swedish originals from 1976. Even recent loanwords are often more common in our comparable subcorpus of Danish originals than in the translations. 2. Gellerstam’s finding that (Swedish) colloquialisms are significantly more common in non-translated texts is strongly corroborated in our material. 3. The tendency for certain English words to trigger standard – often stylistically or semantically inadequate – ‘equivalents’ in translations, as pointed out by Gellerstam, is still detectable, and in our material we did indeed find examples of this. However, this standardization does not always apply. A lot of the words and constructions checked in our translation subcorpus show that many translators take pride in using Danish equivalents that may have neither surface likeness nor in other ways function as ‘standard’ equivalents of the English word in question. Here, dif ferences between individual translators seem to be more significant than dif ferences between the works of translators and the original Danish texts. 4. In Gellerstam’s study, so-called international words were often used in English-inspired non-literal senses, but only in translations. In contrast to this, our material, although too small to yield all the words we searched for, leaves us with evidence of the opposite. Words like ‘lokal’ (instead of ‘stedlig’) and ‘massiv’ (instead of ‘voldsom’) – two items mentioned in the Swedish study – are found just as often in our Danish originals as in the translations. This is in line with our intuition; the metaphorical senses of such lexical items have long ago entered the Danish language: expressions like ‘at abonnere på’ [to subscribe to], used in the sense ‘go in for’, and ‘at løfte’ [to lift] – of embargoes, for instance – are now often used in political contexts in modern Danish journalese. 5. Gellerstam’s final point had to do with English-inspired semantic and collocational patterns popping up in translations. In our study, we have found examples of this as well. Still, dif ferences exist between individual translators: we could not detect a general pattern. 6. As an addition to the ‘check list’ above comparing the Danish and the Swedish findings, this section will end with an example of the type of


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translationese that surprised us the most: some language-internal and external phenomena thought to be culture-specific, but which in fact were not – though Martin Gellerstam had concluded that they were: There seems to be more dialogue in the TE lot; at least judging from the mass of dialogue expressions like she said smiling and more indirect expressions like he shrugged his shoulders. […] People simply shrug their shoulders much more in TE than in the OSN. (Gellerstam 1986: 90)

What we learn here is that in Sweden in the 1970s, translations from English (TE) dif fer fundamentally from original Swedish novels (OSN) simply because they depict another reality. Whether this is truly culture-specific or merely a literary device is not relevant here: the Anglophone novels make people do things they tend not to do in Swedish novels. With Swedish and Danish cultures being just as similar as the two sister languages, we thought that we might be on safe ground here – that this would be a place where Danish (writing) habits would produce texts that dif fered from Anglophone fiction in translation. We were wrong. There were just as many shrugging speakers, for instance, in the Danish comparable corpus as there were in the Danish translations. This small quantitative study indicates that not only are lexical, semantic and grammatical constructions in f lux. The persona we create in fiction and the world view displayed in non-fictional genres often emulate British and American role models. Most features of translationese are no longer restricted to translations; they tend to get a foothold in Danish original texts as well. This means that translationese has come full circle: When Danish authors use words and constructions introduced into the language (partly) by translations, such language elements eventually escape the translationese epithet. While standard ‘equivalents’ modeled on English terms may monopolize their semantic fields in this process, English non-accepted loans pass on from the status of translationese to the realm of accepted Anglicisms. With that process completed, there is a new turn of the wheel as new elements are introduced in Danish, some to be thrown of f at a later stage, others to enter the hub of the wheel.

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In Italy, a similar development has been documented in a corpus study on articles on economics. Surprisingly, in the subcorpus of translations from English, ‘the percentage of borrowings is lower than in the comparable component’, i.e. a corpus of original Italian texts on the same subject (Musacchio 2005: 76). Whether this reversal of the workings of anglification is applicable to other text types and other ‘minor’ languages – an intriguing scenario indeed – remains to be seen.

10 Anglification in the Making: Examples of Danish Developments Successful Anglicisms may perform one or more of the following functions: 1. represent new phenomena: sms 2. fill an existing void: stalker 3. serve as euphemisms: cancer 4. make known phenomena sound new: coaching All the above examples of successful Anglicisms, found in several European languages, are clearly identifiable as English loan words. An admittedly unusually clear-cut example of the success of this type of Anglicism is the Danish verbal phrase have sex.16 Contrary to what one may believe, the verb here is not an English borrowing, but the all-Danish cognate word ‘have’, pronounced [hæ]. Based on the popular hybrid form dyrke sex, with the same semantic content, the English lookalike has gained an extremely high ‘linguistic market share’ and has become the dominant choice in its semantic

16

This example was taken from Gottlieb (forthcoming), an empirical investigation of the (varying) success of English-inspired phrases in Danish.

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field. Table 9 shows the relative progression over the two decades from 1990 to 2010 as the English-inspired construction quadrupled its share while the two synonymous traditional Danish constructions (that could be translated as ‘have intercourse with’ and ‘go to bed with’ respectively) lost momentum: Table 9 A Case of Two-Step Anglification (key term followed by full expression) Name of corpus

have* samleje

gå* i seng med

dyrke* sex

have* sex

ADL (< 1940)

4

100%

0

0%

0

0%

0

0%

Korpus 90

84

23.8%

189

53.5%

32

9.1%

48

13.6%

Infomedia 1995

125

17.2%

232

31.9%

124

17.1%

246

33.8%

Korpus 2000

43

15.6%

79

28.7%

54

19.6%

99

36.0%

Infomedia 2005

622

15.1%

556

13.5%

818

19.9%

2,121

51.5%

Infomedia 2010

1,008 16.4%

584

9.5%

1,187

19.3%

3,369

54.8%

Change 1990–2010

– 7.4 pp

– 44.0 pp

+ 10.2 pp

+ 41.2 pp

Another Danish example, this time illustrating the fate of many invisible Germanisms deeply rooted in Danish, points to a situation where – for the time being, at least – the new expression creates a stylistic niche rather than takes over the market, so to speak: Table 10 From Germanisms to Anglicisms: A Textbook Example

Name of corpus

forbillede* ( from German ‘Vorbild’)

rollemodel* ( from English role model)

Korpus 90

477 articles (99.4%)

3 articles (0.6%)

Infomedia 1998

1549 articles (93.7%)

104 articles (6.3%)

Infomedia 2005

6511 articles (73.6%)

2341 articles (26.4%)

Infomedia 2010

11604 articles (62.9%)

6843 articles (37.1%)

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11 Beyond Europe: South Africa as a Linguistic Battleground17 In comparison with the fate of minor languages in South Africa, the ‘major’ language there as elsewhere being English (home language of only 8 per cent of South Africans), Danish emerges as far more successful. There is no immanent risk of losing Danish as an all-domains language – as opposed to what is the case of many third-world countries, including South Africa, where indigeneous languages may one day see themselves relegated to ‘kitchen languages’ (a term based on the Afrikaans kombuistaal) or even face extinction (Mesthrie 2008). Table 11 illustrates what may happen to languages that are constantly challenged by a dominant language, in casu English. Table 11 Results of English Impact on Intranational Communication Possible short-term ef fects

Possible long-term ef fects

On translations

Translationese (Anglicisms)

No translations made

On society

Domain losses

Diglossia

On minor languages

Anglification

Language death

However, far from encouraging self-pity in speakers of ‘lesser-used’ languages, we must acknowledge the reasons that people in multilingual nations grant English so much importance in the media and society: 1. English may serve as a much-needed lingua franca. 2. English-language education helps job seekers nationally and inter nationally. 3. English plays a pivotal role as a relay language, mediating information between non-Anglophone cultures.

17

This section is based on Gottlieb (2010b), a study focusing especially on the English impact on Afrikaans.


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Still, in societies like South Africa, parallel language use, including translation from and into all major domestic languages, is a must if those societies are to avoid the long-term ef fects presented in the dystopic third column of Table 11. Yet, if in a democracy like South Africa a majority of the citizens prefer English-language media and instruction, any idealistic language policy will demonstrate its futility.

Conclusion With this paper it is my hope that more translation practitioners, teachers and scholars will realize that the foreignizing strategies which keep the Anglo wolf from eating the foreign sheep on arrival in Wolf land may have the opposite ef fect in Sheepland: that of perpetuating Anglo dominance and alienating domestic languages and literatures. However, it would be naïve to believe that changing attitudes in translators would significantly impact the inf luence from English; as long as large segments of the populations involved feel that their communicative needs are best served using English-derived words and constructions, Anglification will continue.

References Anderman, G. and Rogers, M. (2005). In and out of English: For Better, For Worse? Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Baker, M. (1993), ‘Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications’. In Baker, M., Francis F. and Tognini-Bonelli, E. (eds), Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair, 233–50. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bielsa, E. (2007). ‘Translation in Global New Agencies’, Target, 19(1), 135–55.

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Bielsa, E. (2009). ‘Globalization, Political Violence and Translation: an Introduction’. In Bielsa, E. and Hughes, C.W. (eds), Globalization, Political Violence and Translation. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Bielsa, E. (2010), ‘Translating News: A Comparison of Practices in News Agencies’. In Valdeón, R.A. (ed.), Translating Information, 31–49. Ediciones de la Universidad de Oviedo: Oviedo, Spain. Cronin, M. (2009). Translation goes to the Movies. London: Routledge. DBC (Dansk BiblioteksCenter) (2010). accessed 5 December 2010. Davidsen-Nielsen, N. (2009). Er Der Flere ord i Engelsk end i Dansk? accessed 11 August 2011. Dollerup, C. (2000) ‘“Relay” and “Support” Translations’. In Chesterman, A., San Salvador, N.G. and Gambier, Y. (eds), Translation in Context: Selected Contributions from the EST Congress, Granada 1998, 17–26. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Ebeling, J. (1998). ‘Contrastive Linguistics, Translation, and Parallel corpora’, Meta 43(4), 602–15. accessed 24 November 2011. European Commission (2006). Europeans and their Languages. Special Eurobarometer, 243. accessed 24 November 2011. Fischer, R. and Pułaczewska, H. (eds) (2008). Anglicisms in Europe. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Furiassi, C. (2010). False Anglicisms in Italian. Milano: Polimetrica. Electronic edition freely available at Gellerstam, M. (1986). ‘Translationese in Swedish Novels /translated from English’. In Wollin, L. and Lindquist, H. (eds), Translation Studies in Scandinavia, 88–95. Lund: Lund University Press. Gellerstam, M. (2005). ‘Fingerprints in Translation’. Anderman, G. and Rogers, M. (eds), In and out of English: For Better, For Worse? 201–13. Clevedon: Multi lingual Matters. Görlach, M. (ed.) (2002). English in Europe. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Gottlieb, H. (1996). ‘Tekstning, et Polysemiotisk Puslespil’. In F. Frandsen (ed.), Medierne og Sproget, 151–71. Aalborg: Aalborg Universitetsforlag. Gottlieb, H. (1999). ‘The Impact of English: Danish TV Subtitles as Mediators of Anglicisms’, ZAA, Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 47(2), 133–53.


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Gottlieb, H. (2000). Sample Chapters on the Web as a Basis for Empirical Studies of Translationese. Research paper, Center for Translation Studies, University of Copenhagen. Gottlieb, H. (2001). ‘“In video veritas”: Are Danish Voices Less American than Danish Subtitles?’ In Chaume, F. and Agost, R. (eds), La traducción in los medios audiovisuales, 193–220. Castelló de la Plana: Publicacions de l’UJI, Universitat Jaume I. Gottlieb, H. (2002). ‘Four Germanic Dictionaries of Anglicisms: When Definitions Speak Louder than Words’. In Gottlieb, H., Mogensen, J.E. and Zettersten, A. (eds), Symposium on Lexicography X, 125–43. Lexicographica. Series Maior 109. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Gottlieb, H. (2004). ‘Language-Political Implications of Subtitling’. In P. Orero (ed.), Topics in Audiovisual Translation, 83–100. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Gottlieb, H. (2005). ‘Anglicisms and Translation’. In Anderman, G. and Rogers, M. (eds), In and out of English: For Better, For Worse? 161–84. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Gottlieb, H. (2008). ‘Multidimensional Translation’. In Schjoldager, A. (ed.) Understanding Translation, 39–65. Copenhagen: Academica. Gottlieb, H. (2009a). ‘Subtitling Against the Current’. In Díaz Cintas, J. (ed.), New Trends in Audiovisual Translation, 21–43. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Gottlieb, H. (2009b). ‘Parallelism or Convergence? The English Inf luence on Danish’. In Harder, P. (ed.), English in Denmark: Language Policy, Internationalization and University Teaching. Special issue of Angles on the English-Speaking World, 68–94. University of Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum. Gottlieb, H. (2010a). ‘English-Inspired Post-9/11 Terms in Danish Media’. In Valdeón, R.A. (ed.), Translating Information, 125–50. Ediciones de la Universidad de Oviedo: Oviedo, Spain. Gottlieb, H. (2010b). ‘Multilingual Translation vs. English-fits-all in South African Media’. Across Languages and Cultures 11(2), 189–216. Gottlieb, H. (forthcoming). ‘Phraseology in Flux: Anglicisms Beneath the Surface’. In Pulcini, V. and Furiassi, C. (eds), The Anglicization of European Lexis, Bern: Peter Lang Verlag. Grigaravičiūtė, I. and Gottlieb, H. (1999). ‘Danish Voices, Lithuanian Voice-over: The Mechanics of Non-Synchronous Translation’. Perspectives. Studies in Translatology, 7(1), 41–80. Hajmohammadi, A. (2005). ‘Translation Evaluation in a News Agency’, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 13(3), 215–24. Heilbron, J. (2010). Structure and Dynamics of the World System of Translation. Paper presented at the UNESCO International Symposium ‘Translation and

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Cultural Mediation’, February 22–23. accessed 24 November 2011. Herbst, T. (1994). Linguistische Aspekte der Synchronisation von Fernsehserien. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Hilwerda, I. (2000). Festen – Alle Oversættelser har en Hemmelighed. Unpublished MA Thesis. Gronigen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Index Translationum (2010) accessed 9 August 2011. Johansson, S. and Hof land, K. (1994). ‘Towards an English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus’. In Fries, U., Tottie, G. and Schneider, P. (eds), Creating and Using English Language Corpora, 25–37. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Judickaitė, L. (2009). Foreignization and Domestication in Film Translation. Unpublished term paper. Lithuania: Vitautas Magnus University. Larsen, K. (2010). A Comparison of the Danish and English Lexicons. Unpublished BA thesis. Copenhagen: Department of English, Germanic and Romance Studies, University of Copenhagen. Lindegaard, A. (1996). ‘Translations: Originals in Dialogue’, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 4(1), 153–62. Ljung, M. (1988). Skinheads, Hackers and Lama Ankor: Engelskan i 80-talets Svenska. Stockholm: Bokförlaget Trevi. Lønsmann, D. (2009). ‘From Subculture to Mainstream: The Spread of English in Denmark’, Journal of Pragmatics, 41(6), 1139–51. Mesthrie, R. (2008). ‘“Death of the Mother Tongue” – is English a Glottophagic Language in South Africa?’, English Today, 24(2), 13–19. Musacchio, M.T. (2005). ‘The Inf luence of English on Italian: The Case of Translations of Economics Articles’. In Anderman, G. and Rogers, M. (eds), In and out of English: For Better, For Worse?, 71–96. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Nedergaard-Larsen, B. (1993). ‘Culture-bound Problems in Subtitling’. Perspectives. Studies in Translatology, 1(2), 207–41. O’Connell, E. (2011). ‘Formal and Casual Language Learning: What Subtitles have to Of fer Minority Languages like Irish’. In McLoughlin, L.I., Biscio, M. and Ní Mhainnín, M. (eds), Audiovisual Translation. Subtitles and Subtitling: Theory and Practice, 157–75. Bern: Peter Lang. Onysko, A. (2007). Anglicisms in German. Borrowing, Lexical Productivity, and Written Codeswitching. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Pedersen, J. (2011). Subtitling Norms for Television. An Exploration Focusing on Extralinguistic Cultural References. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.


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Preisler, B. (2003). ‘English in Danish and the Danes’ English’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 159, 109–26. Schmied, J. and Schäf f ler, H. (1996). ‘Approaching Translationese through Parallel and Translation Corpora’. In Percy, C.E., Meyer, C.F. and Lancashire, I. (eds), Synchronic Corpus Linguistics, 41–56. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Tymoczko, M. (2000). ‘Translation and Political Engagement: Activism, Social Change and the Role of Translation in Geopolitical Shifts’, The Translator, 6(1), 23–47. Valdeón, R. (2005). ‘The CCNenEspañol News’, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 13(4), 255–67. Valdeón, R. (2007). ‘Translating News from the Inner Circle: Imposing Regularity across Languages’, Quaderns: Revista de Traducció, 14, 155–67. Valdeón, R. (ed.) (2010). Translating Information. Oviedo: Ediciones de la Universidad de Oviedo. Van Doorslaer, L. (2009). ‘How language and (non-)Translation Impact on Media Newrooms: the Case of Newpapers in Belgium’, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 17(2), 83–92. Venuti, L. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility: a History of Translation. London: Routledge. Venuti, L. (1998). The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Dif ference. London: Routledge. Zilberdik, N.J. (2004). ‘Relay Translation in Subtitling’, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 12(1), 31–55.

David Little

Learner Autonomy, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, the European Language Portfolio and Language Teaching at University

1 Two Versions of Learner Autonomy 1.1 Version 1 The term ‘learner autonomy’ was introduced to the world of language teaching by Henri Holec in Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning, a report commissioned by the Council of Europe and first published in 1979 (cited here as Holec 1981). Holec defines learner autonomy as the ability ‘to take charge of one’s own learning’ (1981: 3): To take charge of one’s learning is to have, and to hold, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning, i.e.: determining the objectives; defining the contents and progressions; selecting methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the procedure of acquisition properly speaking (rhythm, time, place, etc.); evaluating what has been acquired. (ibid.)

This is Version 1 of learner autonomy. The link between the Council of Europe and learner autonomy is not accidental. The Council of Europe was founded to defend human rights, parliamentary democracy and the rule of law, and its various educational policies and projects have all been concerned in one way or another with education for democratic citizenship. In the 1970s it promoted adult education and adult language learning as instruments of democratization, believing that whatever was learnt should

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enhance the learner’s capacity to contribute to the democratic process. In another Council of Europe report of the 1970s, Janne argued that adult education should be: an instrument for arousing an increasing sense of awareness and liberation in man, and, in some cases, an instrument for changing the environment itself. From the idea of man ‘product of his society’, one moves to the idea of man ‘producer of his society’. ( Janne 1977: 15)

This ideal should be ref lected in the teaching/learning process itself: the aim of the Council of Europe’s policy in regard to adult language learning, for example, was to: make the process of language learning more democratic by providing the conceptual tools for the planning, construction and conduct of courses closely geared to the needs, motivations and characteristics of the learner and enabling him so far as possible to steer and control his own progress. (Trim 1978: 1)

According to Version 1, learner autonomy is a matter of learner control and self-direction. In Holec’s definition autonomous learners manage for themselves dimensions of the language learning process that are traditionally managed by the teacher. The crucial distinction that Version 1 makes is between teacher-directed and self-directed learners. Holec acknowledges that the ability to manage one’s own learning is not necessarily inborn: it is the teacher’s job to support the transition from non-autonomous to autonomous learning by helping learners to develop their capacity for self-management. But in his view this is separate from language learning as such. He argues that the teacher has two objectives: to help the learner acquire (i) ‘the linguistic and communicative abilities he has defined for himself ’ and (ii) ‘autonomy’ (Holec 1981: 23). (That the learner has defined his own objectives and yet must be led to autonomy seems curiously contradictory.) Version 1 of learner autonomy has had a significant impact on language learning at university, mostly via self-access learning schemes. At the end of the 1970s most universities were equipped with language laboratories, though the behaviourist learning theory that had shaped their design was thoroughly discredited. The idea of self-access learning, according

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to which the individual student could study at times that suited his/her own convenience, perhaps using materials of his/her own choosing, gave the language laboratory a new lease of life. Libraries of audio and, in due course, video resources were accumulated: first tapes, then cassettes, and after that CDs and DVDs. By the end of the 1990s the analogue technology of language laboratories had been superseded by computer networks, learning resources were stored on servers, and the Internet had opened up a vast array of new learning opportunities. Before this last development, working in a self-access centre usually meant working alone, which helps to explain the tendency in some parts of the world to treat ‘autonomy’ and ‘independence’ as synonyms. Some universities thought of language laboratories as a means of replacing human teachers; this reinforced the identification of ‘autonomy’ with ‘self-instruction’. Universities quickly discovered that their students mostly lacked the skills to make ef fective use of self-access centres. They needed support of various kinds, usually delivered by an adviser or counsellor who provided ‘learner training’. At the same time self-access centres had the capacity to generate research data of many dif ferent kinds, qualitative as well as quantitative, and these have fed various strands of autonomy-related research. Those charged with advising learners found that: it was useful to explore their beliefs and attitudes; the notion of learner training went hand in hand with an interest in learning strategies; the idea that the essential pedagogical challenge is to support the transition from non-autonomous to autonomous learning gave rise to the concept of ‘readiness for autonomy’; it also led to attempts to measure the extent of learners’ autonomy separately from their proficiency in the target language, and more recently the capacity of computers to track the use that is made of them has facilitated the exploration of learning behaviour in online language learning environments. 1.2 Version 2 My own work on learner autonomy (Version 2) took Version 1 as its starting point. In the early 1980s I was responsible for language laboratories in my university, exploiting them as a support for self-access learning seemed

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an obvious thing to do and I believed in any case that university students should be brought to manage their own learning. However, when I first attempted to explore the concept of learner autonomy and identify possible theoretical underpinnings, I was inf luenced less by the success of our own experiments in self-access language learning than by the example of Leni Dam, who was teaching English in a Danish Folkeskole with pupils ranging in age from 6 to 16. Dam summarized her educational purpose thus: By developing learner autonomy in the classroom I hope to strengthen my learners’ ‘ability to make [their] own decisions about what to do rather than being inf luenced by others or told what to do’. (Collins COBUILD Dictionary) (Dam 1995: 4)

Within the broad constraints imposed by the of ficial curriculum, Dam’s learners were doing the things that characterize Holec’s autonomous learner: setting their own goals, choosing their own learning activities and materials, managing the learning process and regularly evaluating learning outcomes. But they were doing these things interactively as members of a learning community. In their case learner autonomy was an individual but also a group phenomenon: the progress of individual learners depended on, and always fed back into, the progress of the class. This brings us to the first of three major dif ferences between learner autonomy Version 1 and learner autonomy Version 2: whereas Version 1 is individual-cognitive-organizational in its orientation, Version 2 is at once individual-cognitive-organizational and social-interactive-collaborative, and these two dimensions exist in a profoundly symbiotic relation to each other. A major source for Version 2 was Douglas Barnes’s broadly constructivist psychology of learning, which assumed that all learning is a matter of accommodating new knowledge to what is already known: ‘To learn is to develop relationships between what the learner knows already and the new system being presented to him, and this can only be done by the learner himself ’ (Barnes 1976: 82; emphasis added). This implied that autonomy is a cognitive imperative and that pedagogy’s task is to help learners to recognize this and make a virtue out of necessity. The research on which Barnes based his book was concerned to find ways of counteracting the alienation of teenage learners; to draw them into engagement with school

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learning by exploiting the knowledge they brought with them to the classroom. Barnes explained this in terms of a distinction between ‘school knowledge’ and ‘action knowledge’, which he defined as ‘the knowledge on which our actions in the everyday world are based’ (ibid: 30). Too often school knowledge remains external to the learner, ‘the knowledge which someone else presents to us’: We partly grasp it, enough to answer the teacher’s questions, to do exercises, or to answer examination questions, but it remains someone else’s knowledge, not ours. If we never use this knowledge we probably forget it. In so far as we use knowledge for our own purposes however we begin to incorporate it into our view of the world, and to use parts of it to cope with the exigencies of living. Once the knowledge becomes incorporated into that view of the world on which our actions are based I would say that it has become ‘action knowledge’. (Barnes 1976: 81)

Exploratory talk was the means by which Barnes proposed to bring school knowledge and learners’ action knowledge into fruitful interaction with each other. Like learner autonomy Version 1, learner autonomy Version 2 wants learners to be actively engaged in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating their own learning, and like Version 1, Version 2 recognizes that ‘learning how to learn’ requires mediation and support from an expert (teacher, advisor, counsellor, etc). However, for Version 2 all learning is autonomous in the sense that learners cannot help but construct their own knowledge. Pedagogical approaches that are shaped by this view want learners to manage their own learning in order to ensure that their action knowledge is fully engaged. They also want learners to manage their own learning because we are at our most motivated when we are autonomous or ‘volitional in our actions’ (Deci 1996).1 According to Version 2, in other words, learner autonomy is important because autonomy helps to define the way human beings are. It is, for example, the goal but also the medium of developmental and experiential learning. Toddlers do not first learn a mother tongue and then, after several years of development, discover that

1

For an overview of relevant research, see Deci (1996).

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they can use it to communicate with those around them. Rather, they learn their mother tongue as a result of their ef forts to communicate, and those ef forts are autonomous, prompted by the interests and goals they happen to be pursuing from one moment to the next. In adult life our capacity for autonomous behaviour is the basis on which we most ef fectively contribute to the various contexts in which we live – family, community, workplace, etc. This line of argument brings us to the second major dif ference between Version 1 and Version 2. Whereas Version 1 is concerned with bringing learners from teacher-direction to self-direction, Version 2 believes that all learners already have some experience of what it is to be autonomous, and that it is education’s task to harness, make explicit and develop their inbuilt capacity for autonomy in order to secure optimal learning outcomes. The third major dif ference between Version 1 and Version 2 has to do with language. According to Barnes, ‘[what pupils] learn can hardly be distinguished from the ability to communicate it’ (1976: 20). But besides being the medium in which knowledge is expressed, language is the tool with which we construct knowledge. Barnes set such store by exploratory talk because it is the means by which learners engage in discursive thinking and consciously take ownership of the knowledge they construct collaboratively: ‘The more a learner controls his own language strategies, and the more he is enabled to think aloud, the more he can take responsibility for formulating explanatory hypotheses and evaluating them’ (ibid.: 29). Barnes was concerned not with second and foreign language learning but with schooling in general. Thus when he refers to language and communication he has in mind learners’ first language. Version 2 of learner autonomy, however, applies his argument to second and foreign languages. It insists that language use plays a central role in successful language learning (a view that it shares with all mainstream theories of second language acquisition). But it believes that use of the target language as an instrument of learning must be spontaneous and authentic; in other words, it must arise from the learners’ own concerns, speak to their identities, and engage their agency. This means that the target language must be the preferred medium of classroom communication, including communication that is ref lective, focused on metacognitive and metalinguistic issues. Swain (2006) argues that advanced language learning depends on three factors: ‘languaging’,

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agency and collaboration. She defines ‘languaging’ as ‘the process of making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through language’ (98), which is closely akin to Barnes’s ‘exploratory talk’. When it involves more than one person, ‘languaging’ requires collaboration. And within this framework the learner’s role is that of agent: ‘an individual who perceives, analyses, accepts or rejects solutions of fered, makes decisions and so on (100–1). This neatly captures the linguistic dimension of learner autonomy Version 2, for which agency in language learning and language use is inseparable from the learner’s proficiency in the target language. According to Version 2, however, ‘languaging’, agency and collaboration are fundamental to successful language learning at all levels of proficiency and education. The essence of Version 2 may be summarized as follows. Because autonomy is a cognitive and motivational imperative, the crucial distinction is not between teacher-directed and self-directed learners, but between learners whose autonomy is focused on the business of language learning and learners whose autonomy is focused elsewhere. Language learner autonomy is constructed and enacted in classroom discourse that is authentically dialogic (Matusov 2007: 233): unremitting use of the target language ensures that language acquisition takes place; unremitting concern for learner involvement and learner ref lection ensures that learners’ L2 repertoire is itself dialogically constituted, developing the internal metacognitive function in interaction with the external communicative function. Note that this is not a ‘method’ but a conceptual framework that allows us to devise contextually appropriate methods. In classrooms that implement Version 2 the teacher plays a key role as expert – someone who knows about language and language learning; as guide – someone who can help a particular learning community to identify its learning needs, and as mediator/communicator – someone who can initiate, model and support the various forms of target language discourse required, including ‘languaging’. From the beginning learners are fully involved in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating their learning, as far as possible in the target language. Thus their autonomy is always constrained by (i) their developed L2 proficiency and (ii) their developed language learning skills. The ‘technology of literacy’ – writing things down – is indispensable to the ref lective processes of planning,

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monitoring and evaluating. Learners use logbooks to capture the content and process of their learning, and posters serve the same purpose for the class as a whole. Writing also plays a central role in communication between learners: written prompts support speaking, while collaborative talk generates written texts.2

2 Implications of Version 2 for Foreign Language Degree Programmes Traditionally, degree programmes in foreign languages have had three components: language, literature and linguistics; more recently other content has been added, for example history or some version of cultural studies. In the English-speaking world there was typically no connection between these dif ferent elements. Language classes were provided to develop students’ proficiency in the target language, but language teaching was considered drudgery and was often assigned to teaching assistants of one kind or another. Lectures on literature were generally given in English, which was also the language of seminars and tutorials. Although they were not supposed to do so, students sometimes read prescribed texts in English translation. Whether it was called philology or linguistics, study of the target language, its history and structural components, was likewise conducted in English. And English was the language in which students wrote term essays and (with the exception of the language papers) answers to exam questions. That was the kind of programme I followed as a student of German and French at Oxford in the 1960s (though I feel obliged to note that I always read German literature in German and French literature in French). Because none of the classes I attended required me to speak German or French, my oral proficiency in both languages was probably less secure when I graduated than when I left school. My teachers took the 2

For a more detailed version of this argument, see Little (2007).

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view that if I wanted to speak German or French I should go to Germany or France and get on with it, which in due course I did. I recently asked a student of modern languages at my Oxford college to describe her course of studies: as far as I could judge, nothing much has changed in half a century. This does not make sense. A foreign language is not an academic discipline but rather the medium through which one can engage with an academic discipline. Logically, the purpose of studying an academic discipline through a foreign language is to become a member, whether temporary or permanent, of an academic community whose knowledge is constructed and communicated in that language. But in order to fulfil that purpose it is necessary to reach a relatively high level of proficiency in the language, and that is likely to be achieved only if the target language is the medium of all teaching and learning and the development of proficiency is fully integrated with the study of literature, linguistics, history, etc. According to learner autonomy Version 2, language learning arises from communicative and ref lective language use in which the agency of the learner is fully engaged. That, surely, is what second and foreign language degree programmes should provide, but it can be delivered only if curricula are radically restructured. In a modular degree programme, for example, each module might comprise of assigned readings, a weekly lecture, a weekly seminar in which the lecture and related readings are discussed and students summarize the results of their discussions in writing, and a second seminar in which the language of the lecture and the assigned readings is explored and appropriated in a variety of oral and written tasks. The seminars would be organized with a view to maximizing students’ involvement in exploratory talk, or ‘languaging’. In the course of a term or semester there should be plenty of scope for students to exercise individual and collaborative initiative. Given their experience of language learning at school, many freshman students are ill equipped for this kind of study, so it would be necessary to provide an induction programme in the first semester or two. Reform of this kind faces a number of challenges, but two in particular may seem particularly forbidding. The first has to do with the sequencing of modules and the gradual adaptation of their structure and content to take account of students’ developing proficiency in the target language and their growing familiarity with the disciplines that determine course

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content. The second challenge is to mediate the curriculum to students in a way that explicitly engages their agency and supports the development of learner autonomy as understood in Version 2. In the second part of the paper I shall argue that the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe 2001) can help us to meet the first of these challenges and the European Language Portfolio can help us to meet the second.

3 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, the European Language Portfolio and Foreign Language Degree Programmes 3.1 Introducing the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001) uses ‘can do’ statements to define L2 proficiency at six levels: A1 and A2 (‘basic user’), B1 and B2 (‘independent user’) and C1 and C2 (‘proficient user’). It provides illustrative scales for five communicative activities: listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production, and writing. These scales are summarized in the so-called self-assessment grid (Council of Europe 2001: 26–7), according to which a learner who has achieved level B1 in spoken interaction, for example, can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken, and can enter unprepared into conversation on topics that are familiar, of personal interest or pertinent to everyday life (e.g. family, hobbies, work, travel and current events). The activity scales are supplemented by scales for various aspects of linguistic and strategic competence. In addition the CEFR provides a comprehensive taxonomic description of domains and varieties of language use.

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The CEFR’s levels were quickly adopted as a way of specifying L2 learning objectives and outcomes. Without necessarily engaging in careful study of the CEFR itself, which is a complex and multidimensional document, language educators soon arrived at an informal consensus. A1 and A2 were the levels to be achieved by L2 learners at primary and lower secondary levels; B1 and B2 belonged to upper secondary, and C1 and C2 were the preserve of higher education. Analysis of the (mostly implied) communicative goals of the Irish L2 curricula for post-primary schools yielded A1 and A2 tasks for lower secondary ( Junior Certificate) and B1 and B2 tasks for upper secondary (Leaving Certificate) – see the ‘I can’ checklists in the version of the European Language Portfolio designed for post-primary L2 learners in Ireland (Authentik 2001). In France a ministerial decree of 2005 stated that school leavers should achieve B2 in their first foreign language and B1 in their second foreign language. The UK’s subject benchmark statement for primary degrees in languages (Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education 2007: 15−16) specifies C1 for ‘threshold standard’ and C2 for ‘typical standard’. In other words, a student must achieve C1 in order to be awarded a degree, but most students achieve C2. The question arises: does this consensus correspond to actual learning outcomes? Unfortunately the answer is no. Consider the following level descriptors (taken from the ‘I can’ checklists in the Swiss European Language Portfolio for older adolescent and adult learners, bmlv 2001): A1: I can introduce somebody and use basic greeting and leave-taking expressions A2: I can make simple transactions in shops, post of fices or banks B1: I can start, maintain and close simple face-to-face conversation on topics that are familiar or of personal interest B2: I can initiate, maintain and end discourse naturally with ef fective turn-taking C1: I can use the language f luently, accurately and ef fectively on a wide range of general, professional or academic topics C2: I can take part ef fortlessly in all conversations and discussions with native speakers

Now consider the kind of language learning needed to reach each successive level. A1 and A2 descriptors mostly refer to discrete tasks and scenarios. Basic greeting and leave-taking expressions (A1) can be mastered in a few

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lessons; while simple transactions in shops, post of fices or banks (A2) might provide the focus for several terms’ learning. But from B1 upwards descriptors refer to increasingly general and complex communicative activity: I can start, maintain and close simple face-to-face conversation on topics that are familiar or of personal interest (B1) requires an extended period of learning in which the target language is the medium of interaction in the classroom and/or elsewhere, and I can take part ef fortlessly in all conversations and discussions with native speakers (C2) is not a skill that can be imparted by a teacher in a traditional language classroom. It requires sustained use of the target language in a variety of academic and/or professional contexts, including university language departments. Students of modern languages whose course is delivered according to the time-hallowed traditions that shaped my own undergraduate experience have no hope of achieving C1, far less C2. To claim otherwise is to delude oneself and potentially to deceive others. 3.2 Using the CEFR to design modules for foreign language degree programmes To the best of my knowledge, no university language department has yet redeveloped its curricula using the CEFR. To do so would require a complex recursive process involving at least five steps: 1. Having familiarized yourself with the CEFR and its multiple interacting dimensions, identify the minimum proficiency levels in listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production and writing that you expect your students to achieve by the end of their studies. Be realistic. The descriptors for C2 writing include: Can produce clear, smoothly f lowing, complex reports, articles or essays which present a case, or give critical appreciation of proposals or literary works (Council of Europe 2001: 62). The full implication of this descriptor must be explored with reference to descriptors for linguistic competence/language quality. For example, according to the scale for general linguistic range, a C2 learner-user can exploit a comprehensive and reliable mastery of a very wide range of language to formulate thoughts precisely, give emphasis,

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dif ferentiate and eliminate ambiguity. No signs of having to restrict what he/she wants to say (ibid.: 110). These descriptors may apply to the exceptional student, but what about the average? B2 may be a more sensible level to aim for: Can write an essay or report which develops an argument, giving reasons in support of or against a particular point of view and explaining the advantages and disadvantages of various options (ibid.: 62). The general linguistic range descriptor for B2 reads as follows: Has a suf ficient range of language to be able to give clear descriptions, express viewpoints and develop arguments without much conspicuous searching for words, using some complex sentence forms to do so (ibid.: 110). Bear in mind too that it is probably inappropriate to expect students to achieve the same proficiency level in all five activities. C1 may not be achievable by the average student in speaking and writing, but may well be appropriate for reading. 2. Consider the entry level of the average student. Although the honors level Irish Leaving Certificate programme and examination includes tasks that can be linked to levels B1 and B2, the great majority of students do not achieve a fully developed B1 proficiency, let alone B2, especially in the productive skills. It may be prudent to assume no more than a comprehensively achieved A2 in speaking and writing. Once realistic proficiency levels have been identified for entry and exit, it is possible to use descriptors for the intervening levels to plot the developmental trajectory that learners should follow. In doing this, remember to consult the language quality/linguistic competence and strategy descriptors (CEFR, Chapter 5) as well as the activities descriptors (Chapter 4). 3. Consider the content to be covered by the programme, express it in modules according to local convention, and decide at which points or in which content areas students will be able to choose from among two or more options. The chronological order in which the modules are arranged should be determined by the need to provide for (i) a coherent development in students’ content knowledge and (ii) a gradually evolving mode of delivery that matches the growth of their target language proficiency and their study skills. Clearly, content should gradually become linguistically and conceptually more demanding as the programme unfolds.

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4. Use activities descriptors from the illustrative scales to identify the kind and level of tasks you want students to be able to perform at the end of each module and use the competence descriptors to determine which aspects of the target language should be especially in focus. Once more, be realistic: recognize that it may be necessary to lower the sights set at the end of the first phase of the exercise. 5. In interaction with (4), and with exploratory talk/languaging in mind, consider the kinds of discourse and learning task most likely to support students’ progress towards the desired learning outcomes. At the end of this process it will be possible to supplement general credit level descriptors with language proficiency descriptors derived from the CEFR; and the rationale and aims, content, learning outcomes, and methods of teaching and learning can all be specified partly in terms of ‘can do’ descriptors. According to the authors of the CEFR, most language learners ‘learn reactively, following the instructions and carrying out the activities prescribed for them by teachers and by textbooks’ (Council of Europe 2001: 141). As we have seen, however, the Council of Europe’s educational ethos favours learner autonomy, which requires that learners ‘learn proactively, taking initiatives to plan, structure and execute their own learning processes’ (ibid). That is why the Council of Europe developed the European Language Portfolio, which has an obvious role in supporting the implementation of the kind of university foreign language curriculum just described. 3.3 The European Language Portfolio and its potential The European Language Portfolio (ELP) has three obligatory components: a language passport, a language biography, and a dossier. It is designed to make the language learning process more transparent to the learner, foster the development of learner autonomy, and promote intercultural awareness and plurilingualism. Ef fective use of the ELP depends on ref lective processes in which self-assessment plays a central role. Goal setting and

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self-assessment are supported by checklists of ‘I can’ descriptors organized by activity and CEFR proficiency level.3 Designing a version of the ELP to support implementation of a CEFRinformed foreign language curriculum at university is a relatively straightforward matter. The language passport is a fixed component: a standard version for use by adult learners is available on the Council of Europe’s ELP website (). The dossier, on the other hand, has no fixed form, so it can either be left entirely open or given a structure that ref lects the overall programme of study and the structure of modules. The language biography is the part of the ELP that is designed to move the learning process forward. That is where the checklists are to be found, alongside pages that invite general ref lection on various aspects of L2 learning and L2 use. It has sometimes been suggested that each academic discipline needs its own checklist descriptors, but this notion rests on a misapprehension of the nature of descriptors at the higher proficiency levels. As we have seen, at levels A1 and A2 descriptors encapsulate simple tasks or routines, but from B1 upwards they refer to increasingly general language activity. They can certainly be used to set learning targets and selfassess learning outcomes, but not in the straightforward, box-ticking way that is often assumed. To develop the communicative capacity captured by higher-level descriptors takes time. This means that if self-assessment is to be a frequent practice the descriptors must be repeatedly deconstructed so that their implications are fully understood and interim learning targets can be derived from them. For this purpose the generic checklists available on the Council of Europe ELP website are entirely appropriate, though they will need to be translated into the students’ target language, for reasons that at this stage in my argument should need no further elaboration. They will also need to be interpreted with detailed reference to the demands of dif ferent curriculum areas – literary studies, linguistics, history, cultural studies, etc. Two examples will serve to illustrate what I mean: • B2 Reading – I can quickly scan through long and complex texts on a variety of topics in my field to locate relevant details. 3

For an extended discussion of ELP-based self-assessment, see Little (2009).

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How quickly is ‘quickly’? What is ‘my field’? What is an appropriate ‘variety of topics’? In terms of field and topics, what counts as a ‘long and complex text’? What count as ‘relevant details’? • B2 Writing – I can write clear detailed text on a wide range of subjects relating to my personal, academic or professional interests. What are ‘my academic and/or professional interests’? What is an appropriate ‘range of subjects’? How do we define ‘clear detailed text’? These questions can be used to focus exploratory talk, and the answers should make explicit the links between curriculum content and students’ developing proficiency in the target language. Like a learning journal, the ELP captures the on-going dialogue of language learning, which (in keeping with learner autonomy Version 2) is partly internal to the individual learner and partly a matter of collaboration between learners. The dialogue embraces planning, monitoring and evaluation, and ref lection on linguistic form, language use, the intercultural dimension, and so on. In addition to their role in goal setting and self-assessment, the ‘I can’ checklists constitute a resource for talking about communication, language and language learning. When the ELP is central to the teaching and learning of languages, it gradually and cumulatively becomes the owner’s L2 autobiography, compiled in continuous dialogue with herself and the rest of the learning community. In this way it helps to overcome the inevitably ‘episodic’ and ‘fragmentary’ nature of L2 learning (Karlsson 2008).

4 Conclusion The argument of this paper may be summarized as follows. The two versions of learner autonomy that I discussed in the first part are both intent on helping learners to manage their own learning. There are, however, three important dif ferences between them. First, Version 1 is individualcognitive-organizational in its orientation, whereas Version 2 is at once

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individual-cognitive-organizational and social-interactive-collaborative, and these two dimensions exist in a profoundly symbiotic relation to each other. Secondly, the crucial dif ference for Version 1 is between teacherdirected and self-directed learners, whereas for Version 2 it is between learners whose capacity for autonomy is focused on language learning and learners whose capacity for autonomy is focused elsewhere. Thirdly, Version 1 makes a distinction between learning a language and becoming an autonomous learner, whereas Version 2 insists that success in language learning depends on engaging the learner’s agency in appropriate use of the target language; in other words, Version 2 denies the possibility of detaching the development of learner autonomy from the development of target language proficiency. Version 1 has had an impact on language learning at university via self-access programmes; Version 2, on the other hand, has had little impact. However, a traditional weakness of foreign language degree programmes, at least in the English-speaking world, is the lack of integration between their dif ferent elements, and Version 2 suggests a way of remedying this. It challenges us to teach such programmes entirely in the target language, to assign a central role to exploratory talk (or ‘languaging’), and to ensure that there is plenty of space for the exercise of individual and collaborative student initiative and self-management. This implies a central role for the ref lective processes of goal setting and self-assessment. The reform of foreign language curricula along these lines no doubt poses many challenges, but two in particular stand out. First, how are we to sequence modules and ensure that their structure and content accommodate students’ developing proficiency in the target language and their growing familiarity with the disciplines that determine course content? And second, how do we mediate the curriculum to students in a way that explicitly engages their agency and supports the development of learner autonomy Version 2? The CEFR helps us respond to the first of these challenges: its descriptive apparatus allows us to identify achievable language learning outcomes, ref lect on our teaching procedures, and define the communicative and linguistic content of our modules. And the ELP helps us respond to the second challenge: we can use it to support the ref lective processes that are central to the practice and development of learner autonomy and underlie the varieties of exploratory talk on which language learning in an academic context particularly depends.

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The task of reform is not yet complete, however. The CEFR’s actionoriented approach is more thoroughly innovative than is often recognized, because it brings curriculum, teaching/learning and assessment into a closer relation to one another than has traditionally been the case. The same ‘can do’ descriptor can be used to define a curriculum goal, guide the selection of learning activities, and shape the development of assessment tasks and rating criteria. This fact should challenge us to rethink each of these dimensions of language education in terms of the other two, and such rethinking should lead us to design tests and exams based on the same criteria as learners use in their ELP-based self-assessment. We should develop rating grids and scoring schemes that can be used for formal assessment and for informal assessment, including peer assessment, which takes place during courses. We should take ELP-based self-assessment seriously, encouraging reliability by requiring students to produce evidence in support of their selfassessment. Finally, we should find a way of incorporating self-assessment in the overall assessment scheme. By developing a new assessment culture of this kind we would close the circle, making our foreign language degree programmes fully learner-centred and autonomy-friendly, because learners would share in the evaluation of curriculum outcomes, including their own learning achievement. That should not only be the ultimate goal of any approach to language education, but also education in general, that aspires to realize the Council of Europe’s democratic ideal. Anyone who is interested in exploring this matter further should read a book not by an applied linguist but by an engineer – John Cowan’s On Becoming an Innovative University Teacher (1998) – which opens new windows on all the issues I have discussed in this paper.

References Authentik (2001). European Language Portfolio/Punann na dTeangacha Eorpacha. Dublin: Authentik. Barnes, D. (1976). From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

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blmv (2001). Portfolio Européen des Langues / Europäisches Sprachenportfolio / Portfolio Europeo delle Lingue / European Language Portfolio. Bern: Berner Lehrmittel und Medienverlag. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cowan, J. (1998). On Becoming an Innovative University Teacher. Buckingham: Open University Press. Dam, L. (1995). Learner Autonomy 3: From Theory to Classroom Practice. Dublin: Authentik. Deci, E.L. with Flaste, R. (1996). Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Selfmotivation. New York: Penguin. Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon; first published Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1979. Janne, H. (1977). Organization, Content and Methods of Adult Education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Karlsson, L. (2008). Turning the Kaleidoscope: (E)FL Educational Experience and Inquiry as Autobiography. Helsinki: University of Helsinki Language Centre. Little, D. (2007). ‘Language Learner Autonomy: some Fundamental Considerations Reconsidered’, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 14–29. Little, D. (2009). ‘The European Language Portfolio: Where Pedagogy and Assessment Meet’, Strasbourg: Council of Europe accessed 24 January 2011. Matusov, E. (2007). ‘Applying Bakhtin Scholarship on Discourse in Education: a Critical Review Essay’, Educational Theory, 57(2), (2007), 215–37. Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (2007). ‘Languages and Related Studies’. Mansfield: Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. accessed 24 January 2011. Swain, M. (2006). ‘Languaging, Agency and Collaboration in Advanced Second Language Proficiency’. In Byrnes, H. (ed.), Advanced Language Learning: The Contribution of Halliday and Vygotsky, 95–108. London: Continuum. Trim, J.L.M. (1978). Some Possible Lines of Development of an Overall Structure for a European Unit/Credit Scheme for Foreign Language Learning by Adults. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Part Two

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Emma García Sanz


1 Introducción El uso del diccionario por parte de los aprendientes se sobreentiende en todas las aulas de segundas lenguas, pues es una herramienta fácil de conseguir que provee numerosas informaciones sobre la lengua meta y que permite al estudiante ser autónomo en su aprendizaje. No obstante, no es poco habitual encontrar una producción errónea debida bien a una mala selección en el diccionario, bien a la ausencia del uso del mismo. En la mayoría de los casos, estos errores no habrían ocurrido de haber hecho una consulta correcta en el diccionario adecuado a cada situación. Ante estas circunstancias, es fundamental cuestionarse como docente la importancia que otorgamos al diccionario en nuestras clases y las actividades que proponemos a nuestros alumnos con el fin de que saquen el mayor partido del mismo, ya sea este uno de los distintos tipos de monolingüe o bilingüe. En el aula de traducción, donde se utilizan tanto la lengua materna como una segunda lengua, la consulta del diccionario también es una realidad. Sin embargo, habrá de tenerse en cuenta que las necesidades de cada grupo meta varían de acuerdo a los objetivos del curso, por lo que dicha consulta será también diferente a la realizada en una aula de segundas lenguas. En cualquier caso, destacamos la necesidad de acercar a los estudiantes esta herramienta didáctica, ya sea en las clases de segundas lenguas o en las clases de traducción.

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Así, el estudio que presentamos tendrá que tener presente no solo la didáctica de enseñanza de segundas lenguas y la didáctica de la traducción, sino también la didáctica lexicográfica como marco teórico. Por ello, en primer lugar, comenzaremos con una aproximación teórica al aula de traducción y al uso del diccionario. En segundo lugar, expondremos los resultados de un cuestionario sobre el uso del diccionario realizado a alumnos de Filología Hispánica que cursaban la asignatura de traducción inversa (alemán-español) en la Universidad de Duisburgo-Essen, Alemania, que tenía como objetivo el análisis de necesidades del grupo meta para la posterior elaboración de los materiales del curso. Y, por último, presentaremos una propuesta didáctica para concienciar al estudiante de las ventajas y los inconvenientes del uso del diccionario en la traducción y los resultados obtenidos a la hora de su realización con el grupo meta anterior.

2 El aula de Traducción Mucho se ha ref lexionado sobre la traducción en el proceso de enseñanzaaprendizaje de segundas lenguas, sobre la traducción como disciplina propia y sobre la enseñanza de segundas lenguas a traductores. En el primer caso observamos una evolución desde el método tradicional, cuyos pilares básicos, recordemos, eran la gramática y traducción, hasta los enfoques comunicativos. Respecto a la segunda ref lexión, Holmes defendía ya en 1972 la independencia de la traducción de otras disciplinas afines como los estudios terminológicos y lexicográficos contrastivos, la lingüística contrastiva y la teoría de la traslación, y dividía los estudios puros de traducción en descriptive translation studies o translation description y theoretical translation studies o translation theory (Holmes 1978 en 1988: 71). En último lugar, en cuanto a la enseñanza de segundas lenguas a traductores, Berenguer (1996: 9) sostiene que forma parte del ámbito de los estudios aplicados de la traducción, aunque también pueda considerarse dentro de la enseñanza


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de fines específicos. No obstante, Hurtado Albir (1996: 34) defiende que la competencia comunicativa (la cual forma parte de lo que esta autora llama competencia traductora) no atañe directamente a la asignatura de traducción, sino que es una condición previa para entrar en dicha aula. Así, teniendo en cuenta lo mencionado y, más concretamente, atendiendo a la diversidad del público discente, hay también cursos de traducción en algunos currículos cuyo objetivo no es la formación de traductores. Hablamos en este caso de las asignaturas de traducción de los planes de estudio de Filología Hispánica en universidades fuera del área hispanoparlante, más concretamente en nuestro caso, en las universidades alemanas. De la misma manera, hacemos referencia también a los planes de estudio de las filologías modernas de las universidades españolas que incluyen asignaturas de traducción. En este caso particular, el objetivo de semejante curso, a nuestro parecer, es la ref lexión sobre la lengua extranjera (que puede ser la L2, la L3 o incluso la L4) y su estudio contrastivo con la propia lengua materna. De esta forma, la traducción se convierte en el medio, no en el fin de la enseñanza, habiendo de proporcionar a los discentes, sin embargo, las herramientas necesarias para que consigan el objetivo último del curso, esto es, el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa en oposición al desarrollo de la competencia traductora1 antes mencionada. Por todo ello, quizá habría que volver a reformular por segunda vez el esquema inicial de Holmes y añadir a la propuesta de Berenguer (1996: 9) mencionada anteriormente, dentro del ámbito de los estudios aplicados, esta última aproximación a la traducción, es decir, aquella en la que los estudiantes serán futuros filólogos y/o profesores de segundas lenguas (en nuestro contexto, de español/LE) y no traductores.

1

Recordemos que para Hurtado Albir (1996: 34) la competencia traductora se compone de una competencia comunicativa en las dos lenguas, una competencia extralingüística, una competencia relacionada con las aptitudes necesarias para llevar a cabo una buena comprensión y producción de textos, una competencia traslatoria (la predisposición a traducir sin interferencias) y ‘una competencia relacionada con el funcionamiento del ejercicio de la traducción profesional’ (la cual, para nuestro grupo meta, no consideramos necesaria).

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En cualquier caso, lo común a todos los acercamientos anteriores es que consideramos que el profesor ha de guiar al alumno en su aprendizaje y proporcionarle las herramientas necesarias para que este se lleve a cabo con éxito. No obstante, respecto a los objetivos específicos de cada curso, cabe señalar que estos vienen dados en base al análisis de necesidades del grupo meta llevado a cabo por el docente, puesto que se pueden tener, como hemos mencionado ya, públicos con distintas necesidades. Por otra parte, de los cinco objetivos generales2 que propone Berenguer (1996: 14) en la enseñanza de la traducción, destacamos el de ‘preparar al alumno para la utilización de diccionarios y otras obras de consulta’, ya que el estudiante ha de saber documentarse y, en palabras de García Yebra (1982): El traductor tiene que conocer la significación de las unidades de las dos lenguas implicadas en el proceso de la traducción; tiene que conocer el sentido de esas unidades lingüísticas complejas que son las locuciones, las frases hechas, los refranes, de la lengua original. Y tiene que hallar sus equivalentes en la lengua terminal. Para ello necesita, irremediablemente, los diccionarios; no sólo bilingües, sino también monolingües. (García Yebra 1982: 120)

Por ello, a continuación pasamos a desarrollar las cuestiones teóricas que subyacen al uso del diccionario en el aula en general y en la de traducción en particular.

2

Estos cinco objetivos son ‘1. Desarrollar la comprensión lectora. 2. Aprender a disociar las dos lenguas en contacto. 3. Preparar al alumno para la utilización de diccionarios y otras obras de consulta. 4. Hacer del futuro traductor un experto en cultura. 5. Sensibilizar al alumno a la actividad traductora, tematizando en clase aspectos relacionados con la traducción’ (Berenguer 1996: 14).


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3 El uso del Diccionario: Cuestiones Teóricas Varios son los argumentos a favor o en contra del uso del diccionario en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de segundas lenguas. Algunos estudiosos defienden el uso del diccionario monolingüe (en adelante DM) desde el primer estadio de aprendizaje y otros se decantan por el bilingüe (en lo sucesivo DB) durante todo el proceso. No obstante, suele aceptarse que el DB es una herramienta básica para el alumno de nivel inicial, el diccionario monolingüe para extranjeros para el estudiante de nivel intermedio y el diccionario monolingüe general para discentes de nivel superior (Hernández 2000). En cuanto al uso del diccionario bilingüe en el aula de segundas lenguas (tengamos en cuenta que un estudiante de traducción lo es antes de una L2), por una parte, sus defensores señalan que este es un instrumento tanto de codificación como de descodificación (aunque no siempre se garantiza la corrección de las mismas) y de transcodificación entre ambas lenguas. Es rápido y cómodo a la hora de suministrar la información léxica, la cual es la más frecuentemente consultada (Ruhstaller 2005). Por otra parte, el uso del DB cuenta también con detractores, entre los que se encuentra Martín García (1999). Esta investigadora hace la siguiente ref lexión: El diccionario bilingüe se constituye como obra exclusivamente descodificadora, razón por la cual obstaculiza la ref lexión por parte del alumno y causa numerosas interferencias entre la lengua materna y la lengua que está siendo aprendida. Dada la escasa información de uso que proporcionan tales obras sobre la lengua, no pueden usarse como obras codificadoras y de aprendizaje. (Martín García 1999: 15)

No obstante, estudiando el uso del diccionario en el aula, vemos que, en muchos casos, se utiliza el bilingüe como obra codificadora en las actividades, por ejemplo, de expresión escrita. Más concretamente, en el aula de traducción, si es cierto que el traductor ha de ser capaz de manejar diversos recursos en el proceso de traducción y que es imposible que conozca todo el léxico de una lengua, no es menos cierto que el estudiante, por lo general,

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prefiere consultar el diccionario bilingüe ante una palabra que no conoce en la L2 (en este caso también la lengua de llegada), que buscar una traducción alternativa haciendo uso de recursos como la definición o la paráfrasis. Asimismo, cuando es la L1 la lengua de llegada en la traducción directa, el estudiante elige, en muchas ocasiones, consultar las palabras desconocidas en el DB antes que usar estrategias que le permitan deducir el significado en una determinada situación comunicativa. Así, en este contexto, Engelberg y Lemnizer3 (2001) exponen lo que consideran las ventajas y los inconvenientes del DB en el ámbito de la traducción. En primer lugar, con respecto a las ventajas, estamos conformes con que los diccionarios bilingües presentan el equivalente que se requiere para una situación comunicativa determinada. Sin embargo, hemos de puntualizar que el hecho de que provea esta información no quiere decir que esta esté lo suficientemente clara para el alumno. En la traducción inversa, el hecho de que el discente consulte una palabra en el diccionario se debe bien a que no está familiarizado con dicho término, esto es, lo desconoce, bien a que este no pertenece a su vocabulario activo sino que forma parte de su vocabulario pasivo. Ante esta situación, cuando el estudiante se ve confrontado con varias traducciones posibles de la misma palabra, la información proporcionada no siempre es suficiente para llevar a cabo con éxito la tarea, puesto que no en todos los casos es evidente qué traducción se usa en qué contexto. En este sentido, consideramos el DB como una ayuda inicial a la hora de codificar en la lengua meta y pensamos que una segunda 3

‘In allen diesen Funktionen haben die zweisprachigen Wörterbücher gegenüber einsprachigen Standard- und Lernwörterbüchern zumindest zwei unbestreitbare Vorteile: i) Sie liefern die Übersetzungsäquivalente, die für die Textübersetzung benötigt werden. ii) Sie sind auf ein bestimmtes Sprachenpaar ausgerichtet und können alle Besonderheiten berücksichtigen, durch die die Abbildung dieser beiden Sprachen aufeinander gekennzeichnet ist. Man muss dafür bei der Benutzung zweisprachiger Wörterbücher allerdings auch Nachteile, insbesondere gegenüber Lernerwörterbüchern, in Kauf nehmen: i) Oft sind die syntaktischen und morphologischen Angaben zu den fremdsprachlichen Lexemen weniger umfangreich und weniger explizit. ii) Die Bedeutung wird nicht ähnlich umfangreich und präzise dargestellt wie durch die Bedeutungserklärungen und illustrierenden Beispiele in Lernerwörterbüchern.’ (Engelberg, Lemnitzer 2001: 112)


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consulta a un diccionario monolingüe de aprendizaje evita errores en la traducción final4 pese a que Atkins (1985: 21) defiende que ‘A monolingual learners’ dictionary is in my view of little use for this operation [the translation from L1 into L2]’ y guiándonos por la defensa de Hausmann (ápud Martín García: 17) del diccionario monolingüe de aprendizaje, el cual ha de tener tres componentes: de aprendizaje, de codificación y de descodificación. En su consulta en dicho contexto, el estudiante hace uso de los tres componentes, lo cual se ve ref lejado en las distintas tareas susceptibles de ser llevadas a cabo. Primero, actúa como obra descodificadora, ya que, como hemos expuesto anteriormente, ante varias propuestas de traducción para un término en la LM, es por norma general el diccionario monolingüe (de aprendizaje) el que resuelve las diferencias de significado entre las posibles traducciones para que se adecue al contexto dado (al. aufregen, esp. alterarse, excitarse, etc). El componente de aprendizaje y el de codificación se ven ref lejados en la información que aporta, entre las cuales destacamos la gramatical, la pragmática y ejemplos sobre el uso de los lemas. Sobre la segunda ventaja expuesta, es decir, que los DB tienen en cuenta las peculiaridades entre ambas lenguas, hemos de precisar que cuando tratamos problemas específicos de traducción, la información que ofrece el diccionario es, en la mayoría de los casos, escasa (con esto hacemos referencia a la traducción al español de palabras alemanas como seit, erst o sogar, entre otras), por lo que en esta situación se requiere una segunda consulta si dichos problemas no se han trabajado de forma explícita en el aula (por lo cual nosotros apostamos). Coincidimos, no obstante, con las desventajas que apuntan ambos estudiosos, a saber, la menor precisión o riqueza del significado en comparación con el diccionario monolingüe de aprendizaje, y la pobreza de la información sintáctica y morfológica, la cual, además, es poco explícita. En este sentido, para destacar la importancia que tiene la información de una entrada para un traductor, cabe recordar las palabras de Varantola (1998): 4

Al llevar a cabo la unidad didáctica, pudimos observar la veracidad de lo expuesto. En diversas ocasiones la información que proporcionaba el DB no era suficiente como para que los estudiantes fueran capaces de elegir la palabra adecuada a la situación.

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Emma García Sanz It is rarely only lexical information that translators want to find when they look up an entry. The information sought is broader in scope; they often want to know how the expression behaves grammatically and what kind of lexical, sentence, paragraph or text environment it normally occurs in. At a higher level, they wish to know whether the expression is appropriate for the context, subject field, text type or register in question (Varantola 1998: 181).

Considerando todo lo expuesto sobre la consulta del diccionario y ante dicha situación en el aula en la que los discentes manejan esta herramienta, el docente ha de plantearse y esbozar su línea de acción sobre el uso del diccionario a la hora de planificar los objetivos de la asignatura. Así, entre estos estará el que los estudiantes sean capaces de utilizar correctamente dicha herramienta didáctica. En esta línea, Hurtado Albir (1996: 40) propone como uno de los objetivos de aprendizaje de la iniciación a la traducción ‘El dinamismo de la equivalencia traductora y los límites de los diccionario bilingües’, ya que la búsqueda de equivalencias es más que una transcodificación de elementos lingüísticos, es un proceso analógico y de exploración de la lengua de llegada. Por todo ello, consideramos necesario el desarrollo de materiales didácticos específicos para el campo de la traducción que permitan al discente no solo acercarse a los diferentes tipos de diccionarios que hay en el mercado, sino también aprender a elegir cuál se adapta mejor a sus necesidades de consulta en cada momento porque, como señalan Maldonado (1998: 13) y Alvar Ezquerra (2003: 12), siempre hay un diccionario que responde a las dudas surgidas, solamente hay que saber buscarlo.

4 Análisis del Cuestionario Sobre el uso del Diccionario Al habernos visto confrontados durante varios cursos de traducción inversa con la pregunta por parte de los estudiantes sobre por qué no se les permite usar el diccionario en el examen final y tras haber observado el (mal) uso


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del diccionario que hacen durante el semestre, decidimos llevar a cabo un cuestionario a los alumnos sobre su uso del diccionario una vez que les habíamos presentado una introducción a la traducción.5 Establecimos varios objetivos para el cuestionario. Primero, queríamos recoger información sobre lo que los discentes pensaban sobre el uso del diccionario y conocer sus creencias sobre el papel de este a la hora de traducir para poder elaborar los materiales con los que trabajaríamos posteriormente. En otras palabras, planteamos un análisis de necesidades a nuestro grupo meta. En segundo lugar, nos interesaba que ellos mismos argumentaran por qué debía o no permitirse el uso del diccionario en el examen final para que luego comprendieran nuestra decisión de no permitir su consulta. El cuestionario lo contestaron diecisiete alumnos que cursaban la asignatura Übersetzung I (Deutsch-Spanisch) en la Universidad de DuisburgoEssen. Esta asignatura es la primera de las tres que contempla el plan de estudios de Lehramt y la única del plan de estudios de 2-Fach-Bachelor Spanische Sprache und Kultur.6 Dado que dichos estudios no son específicos de traducción, la asignatura tiene como objetivos el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa a través de la traducción y la ref lexión sobre la lengua desde el punto de vista contrastivo alemán-español. Los resultados que obtuvimos son los siguientes. En primer lugar, un cuarto de los encuestados usaba el diccionario monolingüe, el Diccionario del estudiante de la RAE o el Diccionario la RAE en su versión en línea. Entre los argumentos que defienden para no usar el diccionario monolingüe se encuentra la creencia de que aún no es necesario. Recordemos que estamos hablando de alumnos de nivel intermedio (B1-B2) y que según lo expuesto anteriormente, lo ideal sería que consultaran el diccionario monolingüe de aprendizaje en esta etapa. 5

6

En esta introducción se debatió sobre lo que es la traducción, los pasos que han de seguirse desde que se recibe el texto original hasta que se presenta la traducción final y aquellos aspectos que han de tenerse en cuenta durante el proceso de traducción. Además, se analizaron los recursos y las herramientas de los que dispone el traductor. En estos estudios de grado el estudiante cursa dos materias distintas, una de las cuales en este caso es Filología Hispánica.

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Segundo, la gran mayoría de los estudiantes utilizaba el diccionario bilingüe de las editoriales Langenscheidt o Klett en formato en papel y los diccionarios gratuitos en la red Leo, Super Spanisch, Myjmk y el de la editorial Pons en su versión en línea. El porqué: son diccionarios que, entre otros, se pueden consultar rápidamente (como habíamos señalado en la aproximación teórica al uso del diccionario), ofrecen sinónimos y antónimos, expresiones, información adicional y palabras poco frecuentes. En tercer lugar, la información que se busca en el diccionario es la definición, sinónimos y antónimos, información gramatical (como la preposición que rige un determinado verbo, la conjugación o el género de un sustantivo). En menor medida se consulta la ortografía. Entre los adjetivos que se usan para definir el diccionario cuando se aprende una lengua, los informantes optaron por imprescindible, obligatorio, importante y/o práctico porque ayuda a aprender palabras nuevas, porque en él no solamente se encuentran definiciones, sino también información gramatical, la ortografía y la pronunciación, porque ayuda a expresarse, porque es una ayuda para entender un texto (aunque a veces se pueda deducir el significado de una palabra por el contexto) y también porque en ocasiones no se tiene ganas o tiempo de parafrasear la palabra desconocida (es decir, de utilizar uno de los recursos del traductor que aprendieron en la primera sesión de introducción). En quinto lugar, la inmensa mayoría considera el diccionario imprescindible para cursar una asignatura de traducción porque con él se pueden aprender palabras nuevas, permite corregir el léxico y la gramática y porque se puede mejorar una traducción utilizando un vocabulario más preciso. Es decir, están considerando en esta pregunta y en la anterior el DB como una obra descodificadora y, además, no solo como una obra codificadora sino también como una herramienta de aprendizaje de léxico. Esto nos lleva a cuestionarnos si los argumentos de los detractores del uso del DB son válidos ante este público discente, teniendo en cuenta que defendemos que al alumno hay que proporcionarle lo que precise atendiendo a sus necesidades particulares y según su forma individual de aprendizaje. No obstante, los encuestados también destacan la necesidad de saber utilizar sinónimos, expresiones alternativas o reformulaciones.


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Por último, con respecto al uso del diccionario en el examen, encontramos que la mitad de los estudiantes está a favor de su consulta, frente a la otra mitad que se posiciona en contra. En este caso, diferenciamos entre los argumentos sobre el uso del diccionario monolingüe y del bilingüe. Los argumentos a favor del uso del diccionario monolingüe son varios: la ayuda que presta a la hora de comprobar si una palabra es correcta, la oportunidad de encontrar varias posibilidades y elegir la que mejor se adapte al contexto, la sensación de seguridad que da en una situación de examen y la alusión a una posible realidad laboral futura, esto es, de trabajar ellos para una empresa como traductores se les permitiría consultarlo. Nos encontramos con un solo argumento a favor del diccionario bilingüe: todos tienen que estar en igualdad de oportunidades para hacer una traducción, ya que no tienen los conocimientos suficientes como para traducir un texto literario (dicha tipología textual no es la única que se estudia en el curso y, en cualquier caso, los textos están seleccionados según el nivel del grupo). Además, se propone un uso limitado del mismo (por ejemplo, consultar solamente diez palabras como máximo). Asimismo, se argumenta que el uso de ambos diccionarios debería estar permitido siempre que aparezcan palabras en la traducción que no sean conocidas por los estudiantes. Destacamos el siguiente comentario, el cual ref leja el análisis y la ref lexión de la primera parte de nuestra propuesta didáctica: Creo que en el examen debería permitirse usar el diccionario monolingüe y bilingüe porque los aspectos más importantes son la competencia sociolingüística y la gramática. Por otro lado, también es posible decir que la competencia estratégica es importante y por eso no debería permitirse usar el diccionario.

Otra razón en contra de ambos diccionarios es que el alumno debe saber el léxico que se le pregunta. Por otra parte, los argumentos en contra del diccionario bilingüe son la posibilidad de que los estudiantes hagan una traducción literal inadecuada y la consecuencia de que nadie aprendería vocabulario. Por último, una vez realizado el cuestionario procedimos a comentar los resultados a modo de ref lexión en el aula. Con ello buscábamos la

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respuesta de los propios estudiantes sobre qué es lo que la profesora evaluaría si se les permitiera consultar el diccionario en el examen (teniendo en cuenta las informaciones que este brinda) y qué es lo que la profesora realmente quería evaluar en dicha asignatura. Destacamos la siguiente afirmación: Evaluarías si sabemos usar el diccionario y no si somos capaces de comunicarnos en español. No evaluaríamos justamente uno de los dos objetivos generales que se habían marcado desde el primer momento para el curso: que los alumnos desarrollen su competencia comunicativa y, especialmente dentro de esta, la competencia estratégica, ya que en el examen se les evaluará su capacidad de mantener la comunicación sin que esta se rompa (recordemos que el segundo era que los estudiantes ref lexionen sobre la lengua desde un punto de vista contrastivo alemán-español). Por eso, el uso del diccionario lo limitamos entonces durante el semestre a la fase de revisión de la traducción, en la cual intentamos mejorar la versión propuesta en un primer momento buscando otras alternativas válidas para el contexto comunicativo dado.

5 Propuesta Didáctica En el apartado anterior hemos especificado el grupo de los alumnos que participaron en el cuestionario y al cual estaban dirigidos los materiales didácticos siguientes. Brevemente recordamos que la unidad se enmarca en un contexto universitario alemán y va dirigida a estudiantes de Filología Hispánica, bien en la especialidad de Lehramt, bien en la especialidad de 2-Fach-Bachelor Spanische Sprache und Kultur. Es su primer curso de traducción inversa alemán-español y tienen un nivel B1-B2 según el Marco europeo de referencia para las lenguas. Insistimos en señalar que el objetivo de la asignatura no es la formación en la competencia traductológica per se, sino la familiarización con la teoría básica de la traducción en cuanto a terminología y recursos y herramientas del traductor, el aprendizaje del uso de obras lexicográficas con criterio y el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa prestando especial atención a la competencia estratégica y a la competencia gramatical desde un punto de vista contrastivo.


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Basándonos en los resultados del cuestionario, teniendo en cuenta tanto las informaciones que se han de saber de una palabra como aquellas susceptibles de ser encontradas en un diccionario y analizando un corpus de traducciones compilado en dicha universidad durante el semestre de verano de 2010 procedimos a desarrollar la presente propuesta didáctica. Esta se concibió para ser desarrollada durante aproximadamente dos horas de clase, dependiendo del tipo de trabajo propuesto, de forma individual o en grupo y de la asignación de las tareas. A continuación detallamos los objetivos específicos de la misma. En los objetivos teóricos de A traducir…se aprende traduciendo señalamos que el alumno ha de ser capaz de: 1. reconocer lo que uno necesita aprender para poder decir que sabe una palabra, 2. extraer y analizar la información de un DB, 3. proponer una traducción para las palabras analizadas formando estas parte de un contexto, 4. analizar las entradas de un DM y justificar la ayuda que aporta en la traducción, 5. distinguir entre dos versiones de la misma traducción: aquella que usa el diccionario y la que no, y evaluar cuál de ellas es globalmente mejor, 6. ref lexionar sobre el valor del diccionario en un curso de traducción y 7. ref lexionar sobre el uso del diccionario en la prueba final del curso. Y los objetivos de comunicación son que el alumno sea capaz de: 1. reconocer léxico relacionado con la educación vial, 2. argumentar sobre el valor del diccionario en un curso de traducción y 3. argumentar a favor y en contra del uso del diccionario en la prueba final del curso. A la hora de llevar a cabo la propuesta didáctica en el aula7 (para la cual consultamos los diccionarios Clave, Salamanca, Pons en su versión en línea y el diccionario disponible en la red Myjmk debido a que son diccionarios 7

Esta propuesta puede encontrarse al final del artículo.

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que el alumnado puede utilizar posteriormente fuera del aula) observamos que el hecho de que el alumno hubiera comprendido las ventajas y los inconvenientes del uso del diccionario en el proceso de la traducción no quería decir que lo hubiera interiorizado y lo hubiera aplicado literalmente en los textos traducidos inmediatamente después del desarrollo de la unidad. Esto apoya los argumentos de que se ha de enseñar a manejar el diccionario durante todo el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje (Béjoint 1989: 11; Engelberg, Lemnitzer 2001: 73; Nation 2001: 288). Asimismo, consideramos que la inclusión en la unidad didáctica de los argumentos sobre el uso del diccionario en la prueba final y, por tanto, el análisis del cuestionario en clase, contribuyó favorablemente a la comprensión de por qué en el examen no se les permite usar ningún diccionario, ya que pudieron comprobar la riqueza de información que podrían obtener en esta herramienta siempre y cuando su consulta fuera correcta. También ayudó a la mejora de la competencia estratégica, puesto que necesitaban desarrollarla durante todo el curso para enfrentarse con éxito a la traducción del examen en caso de que en el texto original aparecieran palabras, expresiones o estructuras que no supieran trasladar a la lengua de llegada. Por último, cabe señalar que se pueden llevar a cabo adaptaciones de esta propuesta según el grupo meta con el que se quiera trabajar manteniendo las ideas básicas que subyacen a la misma. A saber, que el alumno ref lexione sobre la información que necesita saber de una palabra para aprenderla y la que puede encontrar al consultar el diccionario adecuado, que analice críticamente las entradas lexicográficas para que le sean de utilidad a la hora de desarrollar su competencia en L2/LE y que otorgue el valor y la importancia adecuados a la consulta de dichas obras de referencia.

6 Conclusiones Comenzamos el presente estudio ofreciendo un panorama general sobre el aula de traducción haciendo especial hincapié en aquellos cursos que no van dirigidos a traductores sino a filólogos y/o futuros profesores, cuyos


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objetivos distan de los cursos tradicionales de traducción en cuanto a que los grupos meta tienen necesidades diferentes. El objetivo era contextualizar el uso del diccionario teniendo en cuenta la diversidad de público discente que se enfrenta a un curso de traducción y establecer la relación entre la didáctica de la traducción, la didáctica de segundas lenguas y la didáctica lexicográfica. En segundo lugar, expusimos las ventajas y los inconvenientes del diccionario como herramienta didáctica. Por una parte, llegamos a la conclusión de que en vista de que los discentes utilizan el DB como obra codificadora, descodificadora y de aprendizaje de léxico, el docente tiene que guiar al alumno en su manejo para que haga un uso satisfactorio de esta herramienta y sea autónomo en su aprendizaje. Por otra, defendimos que la consulta del DB ha de ir acompañada de una posterior del DM de aprendizaje, sobre todo en las actividades de codificación y aprendizaje de léxico este provee una información relevante para el estudiante como puede ser la gramatical, la cultural o la ilustración del uso del término mediante ejemplos, entre otros. Con respecto al cuestionario, hemos de recordar que el objetivo era conocer los hábitos y las creencias de nuestro grupo meta real para poder diseñar una propuesta didáctica que permitiera darles a conocer las ventajas y los inconvenientes del uso del diccionario en la asignatura de traducción inversa alemán-español y que ref lexionaran sobre por qué no se les permite usar el diccionario en la prueba final. Asimismo, pese al bajo número de participantes, cabe destacar que los resultados obtenidos son similares en lo que concierne al uso del diccionario monolingüe y del bilingüe a los que obtuvimos en García Sanz (2009) con un mayor número (124) de estudiantes (dicho cuestionario contemplaba el uso del diccionario en general y fue realizado también a docentes). Por último, con la propuesta didáctica esperamos haber contribuido a la didáctica lexicográfica desde la didáctica de segundas lenguas y la didáctica de la traducción. Más específicamente, esperamos que haya mostrado que la consulta del diccionario en el aula ha de contemplarse como un medio gracias al cual se desarrolla la competencia comunicativa en el marco de una asignatura de traducción inversa.

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Figura 1 A traducir…se aprende traduciendo

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Referencias Bibliográficas Alvar Ezquerra, M. (2003). La Enseñanza del Léxico y el Uso del Diccionario. Madrid: Arco Libros. Atkins, B.T.S. (1985). ‘Monolingual and Bilingual Learners’ Dictionaries’. En Ilson, R. (ed.), Dictionaries, Lexicography and Language Learning, 15–24. Oxford: Pergamon Press. AAVV (1997). Diccionario Salamanca de la Lengua Española. Madrid: Santillana. AAVV (2006). Diccionario Clave. Diccionario de Uso del Español Actual. Madrid: SM. Béjoint, H. (1989). ‘The Teaching of Dictionary Use: Present State and Future Tasks’. En Hausmann, F.J. (ed.), Wörterbücher. An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography, 208–15. Berlín: Walter de Gruyter. Berenguer, L. (1996). ‘Didáctica de Segundas Lenguas en Losa Estudios de Traducción’. En Hurtado Albir, A. (ed.), La Enseñanza de la Traducción, 9–30. Castellón de la Plana: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Bosque, I., dir. (2004). Redes. Diccionario Combinatorio del Español. Madrid: SM. Bosque, I., dir. (2006). Diccionario Combinatorio Práctico del Español Contemporáneo. Madrid, SM. Cerviño López, S., Delgado, T. y Kaldemorgen, S. (2003). Aprender a Traducir: una Aproximación a la Didáctica de la Traducción Alemán-Español. Berlín: Tranvía. Engelberg, S. y Lemnitzer, L. (2001). Lexikographie und Wörterbuchbenutzung. Tubinga: Stauf fenburg. García Sanz, E. (2011). ‘El Diccionario: Diferencias y Similitudes como Herramienta Didáctica en el aula de Español/L1 y de Español/L2’. En RedELE, Revista electrónica de didáctica-español lengua extranjera/ ISSN: 1571–4677/ núm. 23, 2011 . García Yebra, V. (1983). En torno a la traducción. Madrid: Gredos. Hernández, H. (2009). ‘El Diccionario en la Enseñanza de E.L.E. (Diccionarios de Español para Extranjeros)’, En Martín Zorraquino, M.A. y Díez Peregrín, C. (eds), Actas del XI Congreso Internacional de ASELE, Universidad de Zaragoza, 13–16 Septiembre 2000 (Zaragoza: Universidad de Zaragoza, 2000). consultado el 5 de junio 2009.


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Holmes, J.S. (1988). ‘The Name and Nature of Translation Studies’. En Holmes, J.S. Translated! Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies 67–80. Amsterdam / Nueva York: Rodopi. Hugues, P. (1996). ‘Kinder, Ampeln und Teutonen’, Der Tagesspiegel, 23 de octubrede 1996. Hurtado Albir, A. (1996). ‘La Enseñanza de la Traducción Directa “general”. Objetivos de Aprendizaje y Metodología’. En Hurtado Albir, A. (ed.), La Enseñanza de la Traducción, 31–55. Castellón de la Plana: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Maldonado, C. (1998). El Uso del Diccionario en el Aula. Madrid: Arco Libros. Martín García, J. (1999). El Diccionario en la Enseñanza del Español. Madrid: Arco Libros. Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Real Academia Española (2001). Diccionario de la Lengua Española. 22ª edición. Madrid: Espasa. Real Academia Española (2003). Diccionario del Estudiante. 1ª edición. Madrid: Espasa. Ruhstaller, S. (2005). ‘Consideraciones Sobre los Diccionarios Bilingüe y Monolingüe’. En Castillo Carballo, M.A. (ed.), Actas del XV Congreso Internacional de ASELE, Universidad de Sevilla, 22–25 septiembre 2004 (Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla, 2005). consultado el 4 de abril 2009. Ruhstaller, S. y Gordón, M.D. (eds) (2010). Diccionarios y Enseñanza de Español. Berna, Berlín, Bruselas, Fráncfort del Meno, Nueva York, Oxford, Vienna: Peter Lang. Varantola, K. (1998). ‘Translators and their Use of Dictionaries: User Needs and User Habits’. En Atkins, B.T.S. (ed.), Using Dictionaries. Studies of Dictionary Use by Language Learners and Translators, 179–92. Tubinga: Niemeyer.

Elisa Ghia

Audiovisual Translation as Acquisitional Input: Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects

1 Introduction Audiovisual text accompanied by interlingual subtitles is being increasingly used as an instrument for the acquisition of foreign languages. Several accounts list the theoretical grounds for the relevance of subtitled input in L2 learning. Empirical research also showed specific acquisitional benefits related to exposure to subtitled video, e.g. in terms of vocabulary or syntax learning. To provide further theoretical basis to the notion, the potential of interlingually subtitled text as learning input could be explored from an input-driven, acquisitional perspective. Along this perspective, both quantitative and qualitative characteristics of input are liable to af fect the learning process. The present paper aims to enumerate a set of quantitative and qualitative features relevant to the exploitation of subtitled input as a learning tool. Special attention is reserved to qualitative aspects, which are somewhat neglected in the literature. Among these, the main focus is drawn to perceptual salience, or the prominence that linguistic elements can acquire in input as a result of specific delivery features. Qualitative variables of input and particularly perceptual salience are associated with their potential sources in audiovisual input, so as to deepen the ref lection on audiovisual translation and language learning and link it up to recent research in Second Language Acquisition (SLA).

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2 Interlingual Subtitling and L2 Learning Within the field of audiovisual translation, interlingual subtitling has been studied along various perspectives, from the translational through to the acquisitional one. As a modality of language transfer on screen, subtitling is endowed with a strong acquisitional potential, constituting a precious resource for the learning and maintenance of foreign languages. Research on subtitling and L2 learning originated from anecdotal evidence from subtitling countries, e.g. Scandinavian countries, Belgium, the Netherlands, where people acquire greater familiarity with foreign languages owing to repeated and prolonged exposure to original input from television. The consideration of linguistic, af fective and cognitive factors provided rather solid theoretical grounds to anecdotal evidence, depicting audiovisual input as linguistically rich, highly motivational and redundant, thus most likely to favour processes of language comprehension and the commitment of linguistic information to memory (Bird and Williams 2002; Danan 2004). Moving from anecdotal evidence and theoretical ref lection, research started to experiment empirically the impact of exposure to audiovisual input enhanced with dif ferent types of subtitles on the acquisition of various L2 skills by learners at dif ferent proficiency levels (Vanderplank 1990; d’Ydewalle, Pavakanun 1996, 1997). Results showed an overall positive ef fect for exposure on vocabulary learning (d’Ydewalle, Pavakanun 1996, 1997; Van de Poel, d’Ydewalle 2001), the development of listening comprehension skills in the L2 (Markham, Peter 2002), and the acquisition of L2 syntactic patterns (Ghia 2007, forthcoming-a). Drawing on theoretical ref lection on subtitling and L2 learning and evidence gathered from empirical research, the present contribution will be aimed at outlining the features of subtitled audiovisual input which may best foster language acquisition. The discussion will move from an inputdriven approach to SLA, and will take into account both quantitative and qualitative characteristics of input. Before that, a general sketch of the verbal components of subtitled audiovisual input learners are exposed to is provided, according to the two separate dimensions of dialogue and subtitles.

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2.1 Interlingually subtitled text as learning input: the dialogic dimension Subtitled audiovisual input provides learners with three main sources of information: oral verbal input in L2 dialogue, written verbal input in L1 subtitles and non-verbal information conveyed through images. At the level of verbal information, dialogue is a crucial component of subtitled film input from an acquisitional perspective. When using films and audiovisual products as input for learning a foreign language, learners are primarily faced with spoken dialogue in the L2 which is contextualized into scenes. Film dialogue has a twofold purpose. First, it is used to carry narration on and provide relevant information about the characters, their social relationships to each other, their personalities and their feelings and moods (Pavesi 2005). In this respect, film talk is characterized by specific ‘target [i.e. audience] orientation’ (Rossi 2002: 163; Bubel 2008). As a further aim, film talk very often attempts to reproduce ordinary conversation and convey an impression of realism, involving viewers by immediacy and authenticity of communication (Kozlof f 2000; Pavesi 2010). The balance between orality-carrying features on the one hand and informativity on the other leads dialogue makers to operate specific linguistic choices, which characterize film talk as a language variety of its own (see Pavesi 2010). Very generally speaking, main choices concern the selection of discourse topics, which tend to be constructed more linearly and in complementarity to scenes (Taylor 2004); at a micro-linguistic level, they very often relate to phonological and pragmatic choices. Phonologically, film dialogue shows greater accuracy and slower rate of articulation than spontaneous dialogue (Chaume 2004). At the level of pragmatics, hesitations, repetitions and semantically void terms seem to occur in generally lower proportion with respect to casual interaction (Taylor 2004). In spite of distributional dif ferences, however, the main features of spontaneous spoken language are preserved in film talk, which can thus be assumed to overall constitute suitable input for language learning.1 More specifically,

1

See Pavesi (2010) for English; see also Quaglio (2008) for English television dia logue.

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what learners access is sociolinguistically realistic oral input in the L2 that is overall more linear and clearly articulated than real-life, face-to-face conversation. When interlingual subtitles are added to audiovisual dialogue, a further verbal dimension comes into play, which conveys additional linguistic input to learners and may provide assistance in their L1. Subtitles may play a dif ferent role in the acquisition process depending on the relationship they establish with images and the Source Text (ST) through the use of specific translation strategies to convey L2 dialogue into the L1. A few of these strategies will be brief ly described in what follows in relation to the learning process. 2.2 Interlingual subtitles as an additional input source in audiovisual text Interlingual subtitling involves a complex translational process. Linguistic information does not only have to be translated from a source language into a target language, but also needs to undergo a diamesic shift from spoken to written language (De Linde, Kay 1999; Perego 2003). Space and synchronization constraints then come into play, since subtitles need to appear simultaneously to both dialogue and images, only have to remain on the screen for a limited amount of time and need to occupy a limited portion of the screen. Space constraints intertwine with perceptual factors, relative to issues of readability or the ease with which subtitles can be read and processed by an audience. Subtitle strings need to remain on the screen a suf ficient time for viewers to read them and concurrently watch the image. Thorough consideration of the factors listed above causes subtitlers to operate a series of translational choices leading to the exploitation of strategies which are sometimes peculiar to subtitling, either in their nature or in their distribution and frequency. Such translation strategies are liable to play a role in the acquisition process when subtitled input is drawn on as a tool for language learning. In particular, they can operate as input simplifiers or enhancers. In what follows, we will focus on a series of subtitling strategies which have been mentioned throughout acquisitional ref lections or are especially pervasive in subtitling.


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Literal transfer refers to a formally literal translation of the ST, which is very closely reproduced in the Target Text (TT) through syntactic transfer, lexical equivalence, or the preservation of pragmatic markers (Gottlieb 1992). Owing to the multiple constraints at work, literal transfer is not always the preferred option in subtitle translation. Nevertheless, its role has been advocated in relation to L2 learning via subtitled film input. Literal transfer is claimed to be liable to assist the decoding of the foreign code and facilitate the matching of linguistic items between ST and TT (Karamitroglou 1998; Pavesi, Perego 2008). In this way, it can operate as a strategy for the cognitive simplification of input. As a result of spatial and temporal constraints, the diamesic shift and their basic supporting function, subtitles are very often reduced with respect to the ST (Díaz Cintas, Remael 2007). In subtitles, the ST has been observed to commonly undergo an approximate 40 per cent reduction in the shift to the target language (Paolinelli 1994), with most frequently omitted linguistic items pertaining to the pragmatic sphere and to spoken language phenomena such as repetitions, hesitations and false starts. Instances of syntactic condensation and simplification at the level of textual structure are also to be observed in the frequent rendering of marked constructions as their unmarked counterparts (Perego 2005). In most cases, what is omitted from dialogue is generally retrievable from context – be it the visual component of images or the original dialogic dimension (Tomaszkiewicz 2009). In an acquisitional perspective, subtitle reduction has been hypothesized to enhance learning by stimulating metalinguistic ref lection and the active comparison between the foreign and the native code appearing in dialogue and written text (Pavesi, Perego 2008). Reduction would be especially ef fective due to the gaps it generates in the subtitles, which may cause viewers to engage in a sort of ‘fill-in-the-blanks’ activity and rely on the other parallel codes to retrieve all missing information and achieve comprehension (Pavesi 2002). The process would therefore trigger greater cognitive ef fort and deeper input processing on the part of learners, and might contribute to shifting their attention to L2 form, acting as an input enhancer. A similar enhancing role could be played by any type of substitution, i.e. the actual variation of the linguistic items and patterns found in

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the ST on a purely qualitative level (see the section on perceptual salience below for a ref lection on subtitle substitution and L2 learning). Lastly, explicitation is a rather pervasive translation strategy in subtitling (Perego 2003). Explicitation involves a more explicit rendering of the information contained in the ST through either the addition of new information or its specification (Øverås 1998). Explicitation does not only operate at the cultural level (as dictated by ‘cultural gaps’ in the target language [Perego 2003]), but can also be dictated by syntax or by the scenes themselves. Owing to its comprehension-driven function, explicitation may facilitate the decoding of the audiovisual message by learners, thus acting as a cognitive simplification device, and direct viewers’ attention to especially informative elements in dialogue (cf. Perego, Pavesi 2007). Moreover, it may of fer an aid to especially advanced learners in decoding cultural and linguistic references in the L2.

3 Input and Learning: Quantitative and Qualitative Features Within an input-driven approach to SLA, input is viewed as fundamental for learning, and the main source of linguistic information (Gass 2003; N. Ellis 2008). Learning is consequently af fected by the quantity of input received, and the characteristics of such input, which are liable to af fect the speed of the learning process, its ease, and its final outcome (R. Ellis 1999). Both quantitative and qualitative features of input contribute to learning in rather similar ways, since they are all closely related to attentional and noticing phenomena, i.e. the way input is attended to and the mechanisms through which information is selected and extracted from it. The quantity of input to be received is a synonym for frequency. Frequency is a key factor within associative models of learning, where the frequency of linguistic items is the trigger to their automatization, generalization and acquisition (N. Ellis 2003). As learners, individuals are most likely commit to memory information that they are frequently exposed to, which they will subsequently use more easily in productive ways. Frequency can operate as both a token and a type phenomenon. Token frequency refers


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to ‘the number of times a unit appears in running text’ (Bybee 2008: 218), and is associated with the acquisition of ‘wholes’, i.e. isolated vocabulary and idioms, irregular patterns in morphosyntax, and pragmatics (N. Ellis, Cadierno 2009: 113; R. Ellis 1999). Conversely, type frequency refers to the various occurrences of a same core pattern, i.e. a structural scheme whose constituent slots are each time filled with dif ferent lexical elements, e.g. the present continuous structure. Whereas token frequency is mainly the basis for the acquisition of lexicon and irregular morphology, type frequency is especially relevant to the abstraction of syntactic patterns and their productivity among learners (N. Ellis, Cadierno 2009): when encountering a variety of possible slotfillers, learners progressively shift their focus from the single components of a structure, e.g. a specific lexical verb in the present continuous, towards its holistic view as a pattern, and start to parse it (Bybee 2008: 221). The abstraction of the pattern leads to its extension to more contexts of usage and its strengthening within the learner’s mind (N. Ellis 2003: 72). Frequency is not the only input variable capable of af fecting learning. Alternative features of input can operate in similar ways at the qualitative level, and accelerate or facilitate the learning process. Such features include imageability, perceptibility and perceptual salience. The imageability of a linguistic item or pattern refers to the ease with which its meaning is paired with a corresponding pre-existing conceptual representation or evokes a mental image (R. Ellis 1999). Input items with higher imageability are claimed to be primarily attended to when input is received (Levelt 1989; Balota et al. 2006) and thus act as favoured candidates for noticing by learners (R. Ellis 1999). Whereas imageability is a strictly cognitive phenomenon, perceptibility involves the perceptual sphere, and indicates the property of a linguistic item to be relatively easy to perceive, identify and process within input owing to some of its (mainly) inherent properties (Goldschneider, DeKeyser 2001). These include morphophonetic substance or length, sonority and transparency of form (R. Ellis 1999; DeKeyser 2005). In spoken language production, clarity of articulation may also work in the direction of greater input perceptibility, i.e. help hearers discern and segment phonetic strings.

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Like perceptibility, perceptual salience also pertains to perception. However, it only refers to the prominence that linguistic items and patterns acquire in input at the very moment of delivery or reception and as a result of characteristics of such delivery. These characteristics contribute to setting the item in contrast with its context or co-text, so that the element results as distinct from its environment (Py 2004). Instances are the use of higher pitch to make linguistic items salient, or syntactic dislocation to set patterns in prominent position. Imageability, perceptibility, frequency and salience can manifest in dif ferent ways throughout diverse input contexts. In what follows, we will see how these notions can be applied to subtitled audiovisual input and can be hypothesized to impact on L2 learning within this medium. 3.1 Quantitative and qualitative features of audiovisual input Within an input-driven approach to L2 acquisition, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of subtitled audiovisual input may be capable of having an impact on noticing and learning processes when the audiovisual resource is used as a tool for learning foreign languages. In quantitative terms, the amount of exposure to audiovisual input is a key factor to language acquisition. Frequent exposure to audiovisual input is generally advocated as anecdotal evidence for L2 learning in subtitling countries (Danan 2004). In processing terms, frequency of input reception makes input elaboration more automatized. Within the audiovisual context, it specifically automatizes the processing of multisource information, conveyed by multiple channels and media simultaneously (Baltova 1999). Continual exposure to subtitled input also entails repeated access to frequent linguistic patterns in the input, accompanied by their L1 translation in the subtitles. This can favour the acquisition of both vocabulary and syntax in the foreign language, operating as both a type and a token phenomenon (Ghia 2007, forthcoming-a). On the qualitative side, imageability, perceptibility and perceptual salience can emerge in subtitled audiovisual input and play a potential role in the acquisition process. Imageability is by default enhanced by the very nature of audiovisual input. Being complemented with a visual


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component, verbal input is easily visualizable by learners. Visualization is then reinforced by verbal redundancy, or the fact that the same information is conveyed in both spoken and written format in L1 subtitles. The degree of imageability of input is mainly dependent on audiovisual genre and scene characteristics, with highly contextualized genres, e.g. comedies, dramas, do-it-yourself programmes (cf. Perego, Pavesi 2007: 152–3) being associated with greater correspondence between images and dialogue. The establishment of a deeper connection between the visual and the verbal dimension has been claimed to be conducive to increased processing and memorization of input (Paivio 1986). The perceptibility of input components can similarly be relevant to the acquisitional use of audiovisual input. We stated above that audiovisual dialogue is generally characterized by greater clarity of articulation than real, face-to-face conversation. Clarity of articulation is one factor to perceptibility: clearly enunciated speech is more easily discerned and segmented by learners, who can thus be granted facilitated access to spoken L2 input.2 Moreover, subtitle translation of fers further aid to speech segmentation and comprehension. As a final factor, perceptual salience can emerge within audiovisual input. Since salience is a rather complex construct to define, its role in subtitled input will be outlined in a separate section. 3.2 Perceptual salience in audiovisual input Patterns of perceptual salience are liable to emerge in subtitled audiovisual input and contribute to the prominence or standing out of linguistic items and patterns from it. As we remarked earlier, perceptual salience originates from a contrast among input components (Py 2004). Owing to the semiotic complexity of subtitled audiovisual input, such contrast can manifest at least two levels: it can emerge from either the interaction between dialogue and images or from the interplay between the two verbal dimensions, i.e. dialogue and subtitles. 2

See Pavesi (2010) for a detailed discussion on the acquisitional benefits of audiovisual dialogue.

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Research on the perception of subtitled text showed the high f lexibility of the human mind in distributing attention among all the dif ferent sensory stimuli available on screen at the same time (d’Ydewalle 2002). Viewers are simultaneously able to attend to the soundtrack while reading the subtitles (d’Ydewalle, Pavakanun 1996, 1997; Van de Poel, d’Ydewalle 2001), and can easily switch attention between the two (d’Ydewalle et al. 1987). At the same time, they are capable of looking at the images appearing on screen simultaneously. These multi-tasking skills allow for complex perceptual interactions among channels and codes to emerge and are at the basis for multimodal enhancement of audiovisual input. Patterns of perceptual salience can originate from a visible contrast between images and dialogue – or its written translation in subtitles. This might be the case every time images are used to shift attention to the verbal dimension or set contrastive relations with linguistic items (cf. Zabalbeascoa 2008). Because of its referential nature, the process could mainly af fect the extent of attention drawn to the lexical-semantic sphere, i.e. serve as a tool to increase the attention to single lexical items within dialogue. The two parallel verbal dimensions of dialogue and subtitles could similarly give rise to salience patterns in their interaction, with a salience type liable to potentially operate at the lexical, syntactic and pragmatic level. This type of perceptual salience would be specifically dependent on translation and the translation strategies applied in the subtitles. In the previous section, we have seen how dif ferent subtitling strategies have been hypothesized to af fect L2 learning in dif ferent ways. Literal transfer could facilitate the pairing of linguistic items between ST and TT (Pavesi, Perego 2008), whereas subtitle simplification might stimulate greater reliance on the aural component and its deeper processing by learners (Pavesi 2002). While in the former case, subtitle translation is likely to work as a simplifying device; in the latter it would constitute an input enhancer liable to increase the perceptual salience of dialogue items. Along the same line, it can be assumed that any increase in the translational contrast between dialogue and subtitles can potentially boost the perceptual salience of verbal items in dialogue input.


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3.3 Perceptual salience as translational contrast By definition, any translated text involves a more or less explicit contrast between an ST and a TT (Catford 1965). Contrast is more evident in cases of simultaneous translation – of which subtitling is an instance – where ST and TT can be accessed at the same time. By standing in immediate contrast to each other, dialogue and subtitles are possible triggers to the perceptual salience of verbal elements in audiovisual input. Translational contrast is especially dependent on the use of specific translation strategies in the subtitles; in an acquisitional perspective, these can be conceived as strategies of input enhancement. Enhancement strategies would include any strategies leading to a more accentuated contrast between dialogue and subtitles, and could operate either quantitatively or qualitatively. A quantitative contrast involves a dif ference in the actual amount of linguistic material used in respectively ST and TT, as achieved by either the subtraction of input components through reduction strategies (example 1) or the addition of linguistic material via explicitation (example 2):3 1. (English ST from Saving Grace, Nigel Cole, 2000) English ST: It hasn’t died, has it? Italian TT: È morta? Back translation: Has it died? 2. (English ST from You’ve Got Mail, Nora and Delia Ephron, 1998) English ST: This is getting… Italian TT: La cosa sta diventando… Back translation: This thing is getting…

3

All examples involve English and Italian as respectively ST and TT, these being the two languages on which research informing the current contribution has been carried out by the author (Ghia, forthcoming-a 2011).

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Qualitative contrast, conversely, refers to a qualitative divergence between items and patterns found in dialogue and subtitles as achieved through the implementation of substitution strategies. Substitution refers to shifts in translation concerning the use of lexical items (example 3), syntactic patterns (example 4) or pragmatically and sociolinguistically connoted language (example 5): 3. (English ST from Notting Hill, Roger Michell, 1999) English ST: It takes place on a submarine. Italian TT: Si svolge sott’acqua. Back translation: It takes place underwater. 4. (English ST from Notting Hill, Roger Michell, 1999) English ST: We’re lucky enough… Italian TT: Abbiamo abbastanza fortuna… Back translation: We’ve got enough luck… 5. (English ST from Ocean’s Eleven, Steven Soderbergh, 2001) English ST: Tell me what the scam is. Italian TT: Mi dici qual è il colpo? Back translation: Can you tell me what the scam is? In example 3 above, the lexical item submarine is substituted in the shift from English ST to Italian TT. In 4, the substitution involves a syntactic structure: the adjective phrase in the ST is rendered as a noun phrase in the TT. Lastly, pragmatics is af fected by the syntactic shift in 5, where a decrease in assertiveness is observed concurrently to the rendering of an imperative clause as an interrogative one. According to the examples shown so far, translational contrast is thus related to a deviation from a situation of formal equivalence between ST and TT or literalness in translation. However, perceptual salience can also originate from any departure, i.e. contrast, from an expected translational outcome, i.e. from what learners expect to find in input and are most familiar with as a translational output. In other words, literalness may not be the default option in the translation of all ST linguistic items


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into a TT. An instance, in these terms, is the case of formulaic translation and translation routines. Languages may develop a set of well-established and fixed routines to translate given linguistic items or patterns from a specific target language (cf. Pavesi 2005). Translation routines may get established by necessity (the target language does not have an equivalent for the pattern in question, and resorts to alternative linguistic means) or as the frequent result of an optional choice by the translator, e.g. linked to synchronization issues in audiovisual input. One frequently quoted instance of routinization in translations from English into Italian is the case of tag questions.4 An equivalent structure to tag questions at both the formal and the functional level is not documented in Italian. For this reason, routinized formulae such as no? [no?] or (è) vero?/non è vero? [is it true?/isn’t it true?] have taken over as almost crystallized equivalents to English question tags, as shown in examples 6 and 7 below: 6. English ST: They should have called him, shouldn’t they? Italian TT: Avrebbero dovuto chiamarlo, no? Back-translation: They should have called him, no? 7. English ST: He looks good, doesn’t he? Italian TT: Sta bene, vero? Back-translation: He looks good, right? By running counter common translational usage, a departure from routinization can be equally responsible for the emergence of perceptual salience. A link between perceptual salience and subtitle translation can be thus better outlined based on the relationship between dialogue and its subtitle translation: the greater the translational contrast that is created between ST and TT is (whatever its nature), the more likely the contrasting elements are to be perceived as perceptually salient by a potential receiver having at least some degree of knowledge of the language in the soundtrack. Higher 4

See Pavesi (2005).

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salience may correspond to greater distance from either literal translation or common translational usage and routinization; conversely, lower salience would emerge from greater closeness to either literal translation or routinization (examples 8 and 9): 8. Formal contrast ST: What I need is a vacation. Greater salience: TT: Quello di cui ho bisogno è una vacanza. Back translation: What I need is a vacation. Lower salience: TT: Ho bisogno di una vacanza. Back translation: I need a vacation. 9. Contrast with routinization ST: They should have called him, shouldn’t they? Greater salience: TT: Avrebbero dovuto chiamarlo, avrebbero. Back translation: They should have called him, they should have. Lower salience: TT: Avrebbero dovuto chiamarlo, vero? Back translation: They should have called him, right? Research on patterns of translational salience in audiovisual input is still scarce. However, studies conducted by the author suggest the relevance of translation-specific salience in processes of both noticing (Ghia forthcoming-b) and L2 syntax learning among intermediate-level, Italian EFL learners exposed to interlingually subtitled input (Ghia 2011). For learning to be best ef fective, the factor yet appeared to be af fected to a large extent by additional conditions of input frequency and perceptibility.5 The complexity of audiovisual input thus makes it dif ficult for the time being to advance strong claims in favour of translation-specific salience.

5

See Ghia (2011) for a more detailed discussion on this point.


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4 Conclusion: Learning Implications and Directions for Future Research Up until now, research on SLA and audiovisual translation has devoted scarce attention to the quantitative and qualitative features of subtitled input that are liable to have an impact on language acquisition. Research rather shows a main concern with the general cognitive and af fective benefits relative to this resource or the empirical testing of dif ferent subtitling modalities on the acquisition of dif ferent types of L2 knowledge. In the context of reception of subtitled audiovisual input, learning can be enhanced by operating on the quantitative and qualitative input variables of frequency, perceptibility, imageability and perceptual salience as they can emerge from images, dialogue, subtitles or combinations among the three. The outcomes can be several: a stimulus to increased processing (Ghia forthcoming-b); a stimulus to increased cognitive comparison (Pavesi 2002) or the enhancement of input components through the creation of perceptual salience patterns (Ghia 2011). Recently, Ghia (forthcoming-b 2011) found empirical evidence for the positive impact of perceptual salience of audiovisual input (in the form of a translational contrast) on both noticing and learning processes among learners. The intrinsic complexity of such input, however, makes the definition of forms of perceptual salience peculiar to audiovisual text far from straightforward, and in constant interaction with variables of frequency and perceptibility (Ghia 2011). A stress on the qualitative dimension of subtitled input, as opposed to the single frequency factor, may be especially relevant in non-subtitling countries, where subtitling is not used as the mainstream screen translation modality and frequency of exposure may not be an option among learners. Along the qualitative line, further aspects may be addressed by future research in an acquisitional perspective. These may include more specific analysis of film genre, dialogue contextualization and speech rate in their

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impact on L2 learning and in their role as input easifiers,6 or empirical research on the acquisitional impact of subtitle segmentation as a possible source for easification and perceptual salience.7 The research for this article has been carried out within the international project ‘English and Italian Audiovisual Language: Translation and Language Learning’, generously funded by the Fondazione Alma Mater Ticinensis, University of Pavia, with Professor Maria Pavesi as the Principal Investigator.

References Balota, D.A., Yap, M.J. and Cortese, M.J. (2006). ‘Visual Word Recognition: The Journey from Features to Meaning’. In Traxler, M.J. and Gernsbacher, M.A. (eds), Handbook of Psycholinguistics, 285–375. San Diego: Elsevier. Baltova, I. (1999). ‘Multisensory Language Teaching in a Multidimensional Curriculum: The Use of Authentic Bimodal Video in Core French’, Canadian Modern Language Review, 56(1), 32–48. Bird, S. and Williams, J.N. (2002). ‘The Ef fect of Bimodal Input on Implicit and Explicit Memory: An Investigation of Within-Language Subtitling’, Applied Psycholinguistics, 23(4), 509–33. accessed 2 December 2011. Bubel, C.M. (2008). ‘Film Audiences as Overhearers’, Journal of Pragmatics, 40, 55–71. Bybee, J. (2008). ‘Usage-Based Grammar and Second Language Acquisition’. In Robinson, P. and Ellis, N.C. (eds), Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition, 216–36. New York: Routledge. Catford, J.C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. An Essay in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: OUP.

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See Perego and Pavesi (2007) for theoretical ref lections on the topic. See Perego (2008) and Perego et al. (2010) for the impact of subtitle segmentation on viewers’ eye movements.


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Chaume, F. (2004). Cine y Traducción. Madrid: Catédra. d’Ydewalle, G. (2002). ‘The Mind at the Crossroad of Multiple On-going Activities: A Challenge to Cognitive Psychology’. In Bäckman, L. and von Hofsten, C. (eds), Psychology at the Turn of the Millennium. Cognitive, Biological, and Health Perspectives, 153–78. Hove: Psychology Press. d’Ydewalle, G. and Pavakanun U. (1997). ‘Could Enjoying a Movie Lead to Language Acquisition?’ In Winterhof f-Spurk, P. and van der Voort, T.H.A. (eds), New Horizons in Media Psychology, 145–55. Opladen: Westdeutcher Verlag. d’Ydewalle, G. and Pavakanun U. (1996). ‘Le Sous-Titrage à la Télévision Facilite-t-il l’Apprentissage des Langues?’ In Gambier, Y. (ed.), Les Transferts Linguistiques dans les Médias Audiovisuels, 217–23. Villeneuve d’Ascq: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion. d’Ydewalle, G., Van Rensbergen, J. and Pollet, J. (1987). ‘Reading a Message When the Same Message is Available Auditorily in Another Language: The Case of Subtitling’. In O’Regan, J.K. and Lévy-Schoen, A. (eds), Eye Movements: From Psychology to Cognition, 313–21. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Danan, M. (2004). ‘Captioning and Subtitling: Undervalued Language Learning Strategies’, META, 49(1), 67–77. de Linde, Z. and Kay, N. (1999). The Semiotics of Subtitling, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. DeKeyser, R.M. (2005). ‘What Makes Learning Second-Language Grammar Dif ficult? A Review of Issues’, Language Learning, 55(1), 1–25. Díaz Cintas, J. and Remael, A. (2007). Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Ellis, N.C. (2003). ‘Constructions, Chunking and Connectionism’. In Doughty, C. and Long, M. (eds), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 63–103. Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Ellis, N.C. (2008). ‘Usage-Based and Form-Focused Language Acquisition. The Associative Learning of Constructions, Learned Attention, and the Limited L2 Endstate’. In Ellis, N.C. and Robinson, P. (eds), The Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition, 372–405. Routledge: New York. Ellis, N.C. and Cadierno T. (2009). ‘Constructing a Second Language’, Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 7, 111–39. Ellis, R. (1999). ‘Factors in the Incidental Acquisition of Second Language Vocabulary from Oral Input’. In Ellis, R. (ed.), Learning a Second Language through Interaction, 35–61. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Gass, S. (2003). ‘Input and Interaction’. In Doughty, C. and Long, M. (eds), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 224–55. Malden: Blackwell.

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Ghia, E. (2007). ‘A Case Study on the Role of Interlingual Subtitles on the Acquisition of L2 Syntax – Initial Results’. In Baicchi, A. (ed.), Voices on Translation. Linguistic, Multimedia, and Cognitive Perspectives. Special Issue of RILA, Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 167–77. Roma: Bulzoni. Ghia, E. (2011). Patterns of Perceptual Salience in Audiovisual Input. An Acquisitional Study. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Pavia. Ghia, E., ‘The Acquisition of L2 Syntax through Audiovisual Translation’. In Şerban, A., Matamala, A. and Lavaur, J. (eds), Audiovisual Translation in Close-Up: Practical and Theoretical Approaches (Bern: Peter Lang, forthcoming-a). Ghia, E., ‘The Impact of Translation Strategies on Subtitle Reading’. In Perego, E. and d’Ydewalle, G. (eds), Broadening the Horizons in AVT. Eye-Tracking-Based Studies on the Perception and Accessibility of Subtitled Films (Amsterdam: Benjamins, forthcoming-b). Goldschneider, J.M. and DeKeyser, R.M. (2001). ‘Explaining the ‘Natural Order of L2 Morpheme Acquisition’. In ‘English: A Meta-Analysis of Multiple Determinants’, Language Learning, 51(1), 1–50. Gottlieb, H. (1992). ‘Subtitling – A New University Discipline’. In Dollerup, C. and Loddegaard, A. (eds), Teaching Translation And Interpreting 1: Training, Talent And Experience, 161–70. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Karamitroglou, F. (1998). ‘A Proposed Set of Subtitling Standards in Europe’, Translation Journal, 2(2), 1–15. Kozlof f, S. (2000). Overhearing Film Dialogue. Berkeley: University of California Press. Levelt, W.J.M. (1989). Speaking. From Intention to Articulation. Cambridge: MIT Press. Markham, P. and Peter, L. (2002). ‘The Inf luence of English Language and Spanish Language Captions on Foreign Language Listening/Reading Comprehension’, Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 31(3), 331–41. Øverås, L. (1998). ‘In Search of the Third Code: An Investigation of Norms in Literary Translation’, META 43(4), 571–88. Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A Dual Coding Approach. New York: OUP. Paolinelli, M. (1994). ‘Doppiaggio: La Traduzione Odiata’. In Baccolini, R. and Bollettieri Bosinelli, R.M. (eds), Il Doppiaggio: Trasposizioni Linguistiche e Culturali, 151–5. Bologna: CLUEB. Pavesi, M. (2002). ‘Sottotitoli: Dalla Semplificazione nella Traduzione all’Apprendimento Linguistico’. In Caimi, A. (ed.), Cinema, Paradiso delle Lingue. I Sottotitoli nell’Apprendimento Linguistico, special issue of RILA, Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 34(1–2), 127–42.


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Pavesi, M. (2005). La traduzione filmica. Roma: Carocci. Pavesi, M. and Perego, E. (2008). ‘Tailor-Made Interlingual Subtitling as a Means to Enhance Second Language Acquisition’. In Diaz-Cintas, J. (ed.), The Didactics of Audiovisual Translation, 437–63. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Pavesi, M. (2010). ‘The Potentials of Audiovisual Dialogue for Second Language Acquisition’, paper presented at the 1st International Language Conference, NUI Galway, 10–11 December 2010. Perego, E. (2003). ‘Evidence of Explicitation in Subtitling: Towards a Categorisation’, Across Languages and Cultures, 4(1), 63–88. Perego, E. (2005). La traduzione audiovisiva. Roma: Carocci. Perego, E. (2008). ‘Subtitles and Line-Breaks: Towards Improved Readability’. In Chiaro, D., Heiss, C. and Bucaria, C. (eds), Between Text and Image. Updating Research in Screen Translation, 211–23. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Perego, E., Del Missier, F., Porta, M. and Mosconi, M. (2010). ‘The Cognitive Ef fectiveness of Subtitle Processing’, Media Psychology, 13(3), 243–72. Perego, E. and Pavesi, M. (2007). ‘Subtitles and Audiovisual Genres for the Language Learner’. In Baicchi, A. (ed.), Voices on Translation. Linguistic, Multimedia and Cognitive Perspectives, special issue of RILA, 39, 147–66. Py, B. (2004). ‘L’Apprenant, le Chercheur et le Discours. Quelques Réf lexions sur la Notion de Saillance’. In Jeanneret, T. (ed.), Approche Critique des Discours: Construction des Corpus et Construction des Observables, special issue of Tranel: Travaux Neuchâtelois de Linguistique, 40, 117–31. Quaglio, P. (2008). ‘Television Dialogue and Natural Conversation. Linguistic Similarities and Functional Dif ferences’. In Ädel, A. and Reppen, R. (eds), Corpora and Discourse. The Challenges of Dif ferent Settings, 189–210. Amsterdam: Benjamins, Amsterdam. Rossi, F. (2002). La Lingua in Gioco. Roma: Bulzoni. Taylor, C. (2004). ‘Subtitling, Filmese and MCA’. In Taylor Torsello, C., Grazia Busà, M. and Gesuato, S. (eds), Lingua Inglese e Mediazione Interlinguistica. Ricerca e Didattica con Supporto Telematico, 3–18. Padova: UNIPRESS. Tomaszkiewicz, T. (2009). ‘Linguistic and Semiotic Approaches to Audiovisual Translation’. In Freddi, M. and Pavesi, M. (eds), Analysing Audiovisual Dialogue. Linguistic and Translational Insights, 19–29. Bologna: CLUEB. Van de Poel, M. and d’Ydewalle, G. (2001). ‘Incidental Foreign-Language Acquisition by Children Watching Subtitled Television Programs’. In Gambier, Y. and Gottlieb, H. (eds), (Multi)Media Translation. Concepts, Practices, and Research, 259–73. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

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Vanderplank, R. (1990). ‘Paying Attention to the Words: Practical and Theoretical Problems in Watching Television Programmes with Uni-Lingual (CEEFAX) Subtitles’, System, 18, 221–34. Zabalbeascoa, P. (2008). ‘The Nature of the Audiovisual Text and its Parameters’. In Díaz Cintas, J. (ed.), The Didactics of Audiovisual Translation, 21–37. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Filmography You’ve Got Mail, Nora and Delia Ephron (1998). Notting Hill, Roger Michell (1999). Saving Grace, Nigel Cole (2000). Ocean’s Eleven, Steven Soderbergh (2001).

Cristina Oddone

Translation in Language Learning: Comparing and Contrasting Film Titles

1 Translation and Language Teaching Interest in language learning and teaching has grown over the years, going through several changes and reversals. Contributions from dif ferent disciplines such as psychology, linguistics and theories of learning have led to the development of approaches and methods that seem to have provided dif ferent answers to learning needs. One of the first trends largely derived from the teaching of Latin and Greek: ‘[a]s Modern languages began to enter the curriculum of European schools in the eighteenth century, they were taught using the same basic procedures that were used for teaching Latin. Textbooks consisted of statements of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences for translation’ (Richards, Rodgers 2001: 4). At that time, the main focus of teaching was accuracy, whereas communication was not a goal. Students spent time translating formal, long sentences and activities were based on grammar rules, which were taught deductively. This approach was known as the Grammar-Translation Method, and it was the mainstream view until 1940s in Europe, even though it is still adopted in many formal teaching contexts today. That method showed its limits: it generated repetition, did not provide real communication, it entailed memorization of rules and words and translation with no communicative purpose. Translating was functional to structured language learning: the language was seen as a system of rules to be taught (morphology, syntax and lexis), and learners had to do exercises to apply what they had studied, exercise their writing skills or perform tests on literary comprehension. Translation was eventually rejected, as new learning and language theories

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were developed, and new approaches spread. The Direct or Natural method, which grew from the studies around a child’s first language acquisition, was an attempt to overcome the limits of the grammar-translation method: it stated that language was to be acquired naturally, without translating words and through the foreign language itself. In psychology, Behaviourism attributed learning to imitation and appropriate responses to stimuli, with positive or negative reinforcement (Skinner 1957). Interference from L1 was to be overcome and errors were to be avoided. The Audio-lingual Method, similar to the earlier Direct Method, drew from Behaviourist theory and was largely applied to language instruction, where pattern and substitution drills, repetition and habit-formation were employed. The target language was to be used, with the presentation of a correct model to be repeated without any explicit grammar instruction. Errors were explained as interference; therefore lessons were carefully built on repetitive drills, whereas use of native language was banned. Chomsky (1959) attacked the behaviourists’ theory because he envisaged language learning as a generative, creative process: learners are endowed with a language acquisition device that requires exposure to language in order for processing to take place. He challenged structural linguistics and introduced his concept of universal grammar, a body of innate rules and knowledge possessed by the users and applied to other languages. Language productivity derived from modelling knowledge of the language using the formal grammar, therefore learning contexts had to be meaningful and mistakes were accepted as part of a process of knowledge building. Other theories and approaches have followed: the Communicative Approach focuses on communication more than grammar and on learning by interacting and performing meaningful tasks. Emphasis has been gradually put on the learner with his/her learning needs and characteristics. The Humanistic approach attributes success or failure of language teaching to the extent to which the learner’s af fective domain is catered for. Krashen’s theory of Second Language Acquisition has been largely inf luential since the 1980s: based on five hypotheses, it claims that acquisition is more important than learning. Acquisition is a more permanent process, by which knowledge is stored in long-term memory, thus it requires meaningful interaction in the target language. Learners progress according to a natural order and exposure to a comprehensible input. Krashen’s theories

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have had an enormous impact on education: a direct consequence is the Natural Approach (Krashen, Terrel 1983): a combination of second language acquisition, language teaching and contributions from the humanistic tradition with its emphasis on setting the right conditions for learning to take place. All these approaches and methods seem to have moved away from translation, focusing instead on contextual language learning and communication in the target language. Important concerns (objectives, selection of content, notions and functions, skills development) have led language teaching and learning, and issues have been addressed in dif ferent ways (f luency over accuracy, emphasis on the learning process and on learners’ needs). Meanwhile, what has really happened to translation? In the 1960s and 1970s, contrastive analysis between languages was employed to predict problems, understand why some features were more dif ficult than others to acquire and to avoid errors. Lado’s Theory of Contrastive Analysis (1958) was based on structural linguistics and behaviourist theories in its way to describe languages and interference between them. Extensively used within the theory of Second Language Acquisition, it assigned a new role to L1. Behaviourists thought that the native language inf luenced language learning. Therefore equivalent portions of two languages were analysed in pairs in order to find similarities and dif ferences, and isolate the problems that the speakers of one language may encounter in acquiring the other: Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture – both productively when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture, and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and the culture as practiced by natives. (Lado 1957: 2)

Before him, Weinreich (1953) had introduced the concept of negative transfer (or interference) as a strong inf luence of one language on another in the speech of bilingual people: Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be referred to as interference phenomena. (Weinreich, 1953: 1)

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In this regard, he also assumed that: [T]he greater the dif ference between the two systems, i.e. the more numerous the mutually exclusive forms and patterns in each, the greater the learning problem and the potential area of interference. (ibid.)

As a consequence, he mainly attributed learners’ problems to the dif ferences between the two language systems. In this concern, contrastive studies seemed to predict the issues involved in acquiring a second language (Richards 1971). But then behaviourist theories started to be challenged as language acquisition was no longer seen as habit and imitation, but as active rule formation (Gass, Selinker 2001). Errors could not be easily predicted and attributed to L1 interference, and language learning was not simply the result of correspondences between the two languages. Among the opponents, Chomsky attacked Lado’s views on language learning as a system of habits, built upon a relationship between L1 and L2. He believed in the role of the language acquisition device that allows learners to develop linguistic competence independently from the examples they are provided with. Languages were no longer viewed as self-contained systems and patterns; instead they were thought to possess universal properties with similarities in their deep structure and dif ferences in their surface structure. The ‘revolution’ created by Chomsky’s theory had a considerable impact: the concepts of language universality and deep structure disproved the basis of structuralism. To acquire a language, a child must devise a hypothesis compatible with presented data – he must select from the store of potential grammars a specific one that is appropriate to the data available to him. (Chomsky 1965a: 36) Lado’s theory was no longer consistent with the new findings on language learning and was then rejected, and the interest switched to error analysis (Corder 1981) and inter-language theory (Selinker 1972). What is important at this point is that Chomsky found translation achievable. He asserted that it is in their deep structure that languages are similar, therefore semantic interpretation is possible. Each utterance in one language can be


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transferred into its deep structure (from verbal to mental level) and then transformed into the deep structure of the target language (from mental to verbal level). However this theory is limited to enunciative frameworks and does not deal with text translation.

2 A New Role for Translation The definition of translation as a word-to-word correspondence is not exhaustive, as words often have more than one meaning and culture also plays an important role. Fidelity and transparency are among the ideals of translators, with equivalence as a main concern in the correspondence between languages. What needs to be considered is that translating implies not only transferring meanings from one language to another one but also from one culture to another one. A semiotic turn took place on the borderline between translation studies and cultural semiotics. The scope of translation as a term widened and the methodology of translation studies started to change due to the dif ferentiation between three kinds of translation activities. (Torop 2002: 3)

In the 1960s, translation became less empirical and acquired a more specific perspective, from a methodological, philological and philosophical point of view. In his essay On Translation, Jakobson (1959) discussed the problem of translation by referring to Peirce’s Theory of Signs: the meaning of one word corresponds to its transposition into another sign, and interpreting a semiotic element implies translating it into another one: All cognitive experience and its classification is conveyable in any existing language. Whenever there is a deficiency, terminology can be qualified and amplified by loanwords or loan-translations, by neologisms or semantic shifts and, finally, by circumlocutions. ( Jakobson 1971: 263)

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All communicative actions are in fact translations: reading, writing, thinking, etc. all correspond to translation processes. According to Jakobson there are three ways of interpreting verbal signs: inter-lingual or interpretation of signs of another language; intra-lingual or interpretation within the same language (paraphrasing, changing of genres and discourses); intersemiotic or transmutation which means translating signs of one system into signs of another one (e.g. literature into films, pictures into words, etc). These types of translation largely depend on the communication procedure and the message involved. Moreover, Jakobson states that when translation occurs, two processes take place simultaneously, recoding and transposing (Torop 2002), as meanings need to be adapted to dif ferent contexts: Culture has its own sign systems or languages on the basis of which the members of the culture communicate. Thus, one possibility to understand a culture is to learn the languages of the culture, the sign systems operating within the culture. (Torop 2002: 8)

The role of translation seems to have changed, and attitudes towards it have turned into a more comprehensive view of the relations between languages. Translation can be now seen as ‘bridge-building across the space between source and target’ (Bassnett 2002: 10). A persistent feature in some academic courses, translation skills are still required in specific jobs (e.g. interpreters). Moreover, in some educational contexts, strict adherence to the foreign language may cause more problems than the use of the native language, which can be an aid particularly when the teacher needs to explain dif ficult concepts. Understanding in one’s own language often entails identifying hidden issues which have to do with one’s own cultural background. Despite the many objections to it in the past, translation is therefore useful in some contexts, where it does not necessarily mean boring, repetitive tasks for students. This practice can be integrated into meaningful activities, where communication is involved, and language learning is achieved in a natural, motivated way. Nowadays people prefer to view translation as a communicative act between cultures, with great emphasis on conveying proper meanings in the target culture. In this regard, a new field of research has developed: Translation Studies, the interdisciplinary studies which exceeded the positivist view of language and translation as an exact science, no longer aimed at raising the issue of how and whether


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the translation was faithful to the original. Attention has been paid not only to the product but also to the process, so that the translated text is seen, not as a perfect copy of the original one, but as a reinterpretation of it. Translation has become more f lexible, as it generates texts that may work well in the comparison between cultures and within the target culture as well. It is not limited to an act of linguistic transcoding, but is seen as an operation of cultural transfer. All variables must be considered from a lexical, grammatical, semantic and pragmatic point of view, with an awareness of the impact that the translated text can have on one’s own culture. From this perspective, translation seems to have reached a new status in language learning. Translation is no longer employed to apply rules or prove comprehension, but as a way to learn a language and its culture at the same time. However, the correct activities to associate with translation tasks must be chosen. Tasks should not focus on appropriateness, accuracy and style, practice should involve students in meaningful activities where they see a purpose in what they are doing. Text awareness should be promoted with a deep understanding of the structures and the meanings of the target language and a comparison between language systems (grammar, lexis, style, and pragmatics-culture). In fact, the approach to translation has completely changed and teachers are now using translation to learn rather than learning how to translate (Duf f 1989). Translation activities can also be used to promote practice in the four skills: if students work in groups they can discuss meanings and compare them in dif ferent languages; finding dif ferences and similarities in the two languages can help students understand the interaction between languages and the problems related to native language interference (Murphy 1988). Today, in light of the latest research, after years of total rejection of translation in the teaching of modern languages, the task of mediation is also regarded as a composite and complex skill, to be pursued systematically in the curriculum of language education as the ability to integrate receptive and productive skills, or as a specific fifth skill. The Common European Framework goes beyond the idea of simple translation and recognizes mediation among the various language activities that activate learners’ communicative language competence. This process is a further step in translating, which is seen not just as a group of words turned into

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another language but as an important process, based on reprocessing an oral or written text, in order for the parties involved to understand each other or to communicate something. ‘Mediating language activities – (re) processing and existing text – occupy an important place in the normal linguistic functioning of our societies’ (CEF 2001: 14). Summarizing and paraphrasing texts in the same language are examples of mediation but also interpretation of signs, notices, texts, etc. Since languages reveal dif ferent systems when compared, mediating means, especially ‘noting possibilities and equivalences, bridging gaps, checking congruence of two versions and consistency of usage’ (CEF 2001: 88). Another instance of mediation is the ability to interpret ‘a cultural phenomenon in relation to another culture’ (Ibid.: 175) which is a sign of the ability to ‘manage a plurilingual and pluricultural repertoire’.

3 Implications for Translation: Language and Culture Translation inevitably brings two languages and two cultures together. This may be an issue, especially when completely dif ferent language systems are involved, or when misunderstandings lead to embarrassment or culture clashes. Language and culture are strongly linked: one cannot teach a language without teaching its culture too. There is no true equivalence sign-to-sign without considering the type and main function of the text, the characteristics of the recipient and the purposes for which one translates. The cultural dimension is emphasized, with its role in opening and establishing a secure communication between two or more people and fulfilling a social and interpersonal task within a specific cultural context. Each act of linguistic mediation is also an act of cultural mediation, and this is important especially if we consider the value that each specimen carries with it from a social and historical point of view. Translating can strengthen or promote intercultural competence and can result in benefits both in the first and in the second language, in terms of understanding, language skills and the range of vocabulary.


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When translating discourse from one language into another, learners face problems related to grammar, syntax, vocabulary, etc. Polysemic words may lead to confusion and vagueness, and figurative language (including items such as metaphors, idioms, similes, paradox, metonymy) requires a deeper analysis to identify meanings. Metaphors and allusions are particularly demanding as they are often culturally specific. As a matter of fact, there is no precise equivalence of one language and another. According to Snell-Hornby (1988), translation has an interdisciplinary function as it deals with something between disciplines, languages and cultures. Sometimes culture-bound problems are more dif ficult to solve than grammar or syntactic issues. Some of these dif ficulties often refer to situations and pragmatics (addressing people, apologizing, etc.) or involve intralinguistic factors (idioms, puns, etc.) (Leppihalme 1997). Some sentences or phrases may contain allusions or references which are understandable only by native speakers, because they contain implicit messages which are not easy to identify. Allusions may be key phrases or refer to proper names, in the form of either direct references or implications, and it is the reader’s role to identify their meaning and make the connection. Leppihalme says that these problems require specific strategies and anticipation: the words employed in an allusion are a clue for translation and they need to be referred back to former uses or some specific features. Some of these items have even turned into clichés so they do not need reference to their original source. The level of dif ficulty also depends on how much a text is ‘embedded into its own culture’ (Snell-Hornby, 1988: 41) and its distance in time and space with the receiver. This is particularly tre for allusions that need ‘a high degree of biculturalisation of receivers in order to be understood across a cultural barrier’ (Leppihalme 1997: 4). The world around us is full of allusions, present not only in literary works but also in TV programmes, films, music, advertisements, etc. Dubbed films have certainly simplified viewing in certain countries, however sometimes dubbed utterances contain errors due to the wrong interpretations of culture-bound items (e.g. proper names, words and phrases with specific allusions or culture-specific metaphors) which may hinder comprehension. Literal translation often implies a pragmatic error deriving from the misunderstanding of the real meaning that the words convey. Semantic and pragmatic meanings must be

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analysed in order to avoid problems related to frozen patterns of language whose significance cannot be identified from its individual components. Recognizing the hidden meaning of utterances and words entails delving into the creative process. In particular, allusions bring special ef fects to the language ‘by their associations or connotations’ (Leppihalme 1997: 34): associations may be subjective, whereas connotations require ‘social collective knowledge’ (ibid). Other expressions can cause dif ficulty in understanding: items such as idioms and fixed expressions can be understood if they are considered together with the context in which they occur. These fixed expressions include frozen collocations, proverbs, routine formulae, sayings and similes (Moon 1998). Some of these expressions break the rules of conventional grammar or include unique items; some formulae and sayings comprise quotations, catch phrases and truisms. Metaphors also involve semantic issue, as they require specialist knowledge to be decoded successfully (semi-transparent metaphors) or they are pure idioms, thus they are impossible to understand without knowing the origin of the expression (opaque metaphors) (Moon 1998). Another important concern is collocation, that is, the way two or more words co-occur in a text in lexicogrammatical patterns. Other figures of speech may be non-transparent to speakers of another language, such as synecdoches, metonymies and litotes. Deignan (1995) argues that most words have a literal and a metaphorical meaning: the latter is used to refer to something dif ferent and generates confusion. She adds that most languages use metaphors, but the way these are used varies from one language to another. Therefore it is important for language students to identify these items, not only to increase their vocabulary but also to develop an awareness of specific language systems, and to understand that the metaphorical meaning of words in one language cannot be directly transferred into another one. When we encounter these expressions, we process the literal meaning at first, then, when this process fails to provide an interpretation for the context, we access what Bobrow and Bell (1973) call the ‘idiom list’, which is the way these expressions are stored in the memory. Nonetheless, understanding is not always easy, as some of these items may undergo variations (amplification, truncation, lexical variation, etc.), encode ideological constructs or allude to stereo types; some are iconic and show the resemblance between the tenor and


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the vehicle, others refer to dif ferent formality levels or are restricted to particular varieties of the language. ‘FEIs may be seen as agglomerates of cultural information rather than simply lexical items’ (Moon 1998: 166). Ambiguity is often the result of texts filled with such elements but the context or co-text may help to shed light on the meaning, and Forrester (1995) states that if the context is appropriate a proverb can be interpreted idiomatically and made-up idioms can be associated with familiar ones in order to be understood. Strategies of problem-solving and ‘analogy and real-world knowledge’ may also be helpful (Moon 1998: 185).

4 Comparing and Contrasting Film Titles This experiment was carried out in an Italian high school, with students aged between fifteen and seventeen, whose level of English was quite low. They were not motivated to learn foreign languages because they did not see a purpose in it. However, they listened to music and watched films from English-speaking countries and showed interest in the meaning of some dif ficult words they heard or they read in lyrics or titles. This activity was designed in order to motivate students in the language learning process by using original material which largely corresponded to their interests. Firstly, we conducted a survey to analyse their tastes and, while brainstorming some film titles, we realized that foreign films are subject to dif ferent processes when they arrive in Italy: some of them maintain their original English title, others are given a translated title, others still have two titles (the original one and an Italian subtitle). We looked for occurrences, possible explanations and then conventionally classified them as: original titles, original titles with Italian subtitles and translated titles. Students worked in groups and found films that fit into the above categories. After completing their lists, they had to compare and contrast titles, use film plots to understand hidden meanings, analyse rules and occurrences, and therefore develop language and cultural awareness. The teacher’s guidance and support was particularly aimed at introducing important items of language

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and grammar, but also provided hints for discussions on cultural issues. Motivation and involvement rose from the use of authentic, interesting material and from the work in the ICT lab – students were allowed to use databases (IMBd and other sites to find information on plots and characters) and other tools (like Tradukka to identify discrepancies or correctness in the translation provided). The first group (English titles) contains very famous films such as The Ring, American Pie, The Fast and the Furious, 2 Fast and 2 Furious, Ocean’s Eleven, Spiderman, Batman, Mr and Mrs Smith, The Departed, Inception, Avatar and so on. Most of these films retain their original title because it is often dif ficult to convey the same idea in Italian, either because it loses its charm (e.g. Uomo Ragno instead of Spiderman) or because it has no cultural roots (e.g. American Pie). It is also true that the original title is often maintained in trailers and advertisements to reduce production costs, nevertheless it is interesting to note how dif ferent they become in another language. The Fast and the Furious is an action film describing car races. The title is highly evocative as it suggests the fast developments in the plot. Furthermore ‘Fast and Furious’ is an idiom meaning ‘done quickly, with a lot of energy’. 2 Fast and 2 Furious plays a similar role, but the presence of ‘2’ performs a dual function: it connotes ‘the sequel’ of the film but also stands for ‘too’, which it often replaces in informal writing and texting. Ocean’s Eleven provides food for thought: Ocean is a person’s surname; he leads a group of expert bank robbers, eleven in the first film, twelve and thirteen in the sequels. This title introduces the possessive case and makes students consider important points (e.g. they need to read the plot to find Ocean’s identity). Mr and Mrs Smith is largely culture-bound: Smith is the most common surname in Britain. Once again reading the plot guides students through comprehension: they are husband and wife, but in fact they are spies in disguise; this is the reason why they adopt this common surname. The equivalent in Italian would be ‘Il signore e la signora Rossi/Bianchi’, the most widespread Italian surnames, but this translation would be less ef fective than the original title. Films with two titles belong to the second group: In Her Shoes: Se fossi lei; Two Weeks’ Notice: Due settimane per inamorarsi; Boat Trip: Crociera per single; The Day after Tomorrow: L’alba del giorno dopo; Unstoppable: Fuori controllo; Morning Glory: Il volto del mattino; Tangled: Rapunzel,


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L’intreccio della torre; Fast and Furious: Solo parti originali, etc. These pairs of film titles help the teacher introduce other important language and culture points. In Her Shoes: ‘In someone else’s shoes’ is a typical idiom including footwear and alluding to being in someone else’s position and having to act or behave like that person. This corresponds to the Italian idiom ‘essere nei panni di un altro’ where the reference is to clothes: wearing somebody else’s clothes and experiencing things from their point of view. The title can be exploited to introduce other idioms and to analyse conditional sentences such as ‘if I were you’. Two Weeks’ Notice is translated as Due settimane per innamorarsi [two weeks to fall in love]: it is interesting to realize why the word ‘notice’ (a written or printed announcement) is turned into a verb (innamorarsi) which anticipate to the central theme of the film. The same happens with Boat Trip and Crociera per single, where the former generally denotes a cruise or trip by boat and the latter adheres to the main plot. Film title pairings often require detailed analysis of the film plots to identify the reason behind the choices. The third group presents even more challenges from a linguistic and cultural point of view: titles are translated into Italian but they often undergo significant changes. Phone Booth and In linea con l’assassino where the Italian version means ‘on the phone with the murderer’: by analysing the plot, the Italian title is more explixit than the English one. More dif ficulties arise with Wedding Crashers and Due single a nozze: this definition does not fit into Italian culture, as uninvited guests cannot take part in wedding parties. A gate crasher sounds like ‘imbucato’ in Italian, with reference to the act of attending an event without paying or being invited. Once more the Italian title helps the audience identify the main story (two singles who attend wedding parties in order to meet girls and pretend they are friends of somebody there). The Pacifier is an action film starring Vin Diesel in the role of an undercover agent employed as a nanny to protect three children from danger. The American English word ‘pacifier’ means a reconciler but also a baby’s dummy, whose Italian translation is ‘il ciuccio’. This title may have been judged not suitable for a film and once more the core idea of the film has been represented by Missione Tata [mission for a nanny/nanny mission in English].

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Lexical implications are behind the choice of Quel mostro di suocera as a version of Monster-in-law: this word is a variation of mother-in-law conveying the idea that she is a monster (stereotype which is quite common in Italy as well, but where the play on words is not possible). The phrase mother-in-law is translated into ‘suocera’ in Italian and this is the reason why it has been adjusted into Quel mostro di suocera. The same happens with Made of Honor but this time the pun is at phonological level: ‘made’ instead of ‘maid’ because the best friend of the bride, who is the film protagonist, is in fact a male friend who is not behaving honestly and properly. This man is actually in love with her and does his best to prevent her from getting married to another man. Since there is no option to use the Italian language in the same way (no puns are possible with ‘damigella d’onore’, the Italian equivalent of ‘maid of honour’), it has been translated as Un amore di testimone, meaning either ‘a lovely maid of honour’ but also implying the fact that she is in love with someone. This instance shows how the teacher can employ play on words to introduce phonological items, such as homophones and allophones. A strange case is represented by the film The Proposal: some of the online translation tools the students used for help, automatically translated the word ‘proposal’ into Ricatto d’amore, which is the title the film has been given in Italy. At a careful analysis, the word proposal may refer to suggestion, of fer of marriage or proposal by an insurance company, whereas the word ‘ricatto’ corresponds to ‘blackmail’ in English. The ambiguity which is generated by online tools may give the teacher the opportunity to work on polysemy and also on the inf luence media and popular culture exerts on language development. The Hangover is a film telling the story of four young men on a stag party, having a hard time in Las Vegas because they drink too much. To have a hangover means suf fering the physical ef fects following the heavy use of alcohol, which in Italian is ‘avere i postumi di una sbornia’. The connotation in English is slightly negative, whereas in Italian the choice implies the idea of having a great time: Una notte da leoni [a brave night out]. Instead, Grown-ups literally means ‘adults’: this film shows some people in their forties, with families, who behave like children. The word ‘bamboccioni’ in Italian has strong links with culture, as it connotes grown-up


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people who still live with their parents, at their expenses, and they usually identify with lazy, spoilt children. There is no negative idea conveyed by the English word. The title Dinner for Schmucks has been translated as A cena con un cretino [having dinner with an idiot]. Schmuck is a slang American word for an idiot, a stupid person, derived from Yiddish and used in other languages or banned in other cultures because it was considered vulgar. The usage of this word for the title was debated as someone perceived it as the wrong choice. However, there seems to be a purpose in this, which is to create confusion about who the real idiot is between the two protagonists, or the boss himself.

6 Conclusions After being rejected for decades because of its links with more traditional grammar teaching methods, translation has been recently re-evaluated. Seen as an important tool for language learning, it is supported by translation studies and contributions from various disciplines. Largely related to linguistics and semantics, a new role has been attributed to it, in defining the relationship between cultures and in attributing meanings to words in one’s own culture. This experience of using film titles to promote language learning has proved particularly valid in dealing with language and cultural issues, developing text awareness and improving students’ language performance.

References Bassnett, S. (2002). Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Bobrow, S.A. and Bell, S. (1973). ‘On catching on to Idiomatic Expressions’, Memory and Cognition, 1, 343–6.

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Chomsky, N. (1965). ‘Formal discussion: the development of grammar in child language’. In Bellugi, U. and Brown, R. (eds), The Acquisition of Language, 35–9. Indiana: Purdue University. Chomsky, N. (1967). ‘A Review of B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behaviour’. In Jakobovits, L.A. and Miron, M.S. (eds), Readings in the Psychology of Language, 142–3. Prentice-Hall Inc. Corder, P. (1981). Error Analysis and Inter-language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Deignan, A. (1995). English Guides 7: Metaphor. London: Harper Collins Publishers. (1989). Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Duf f, A. (1990). ‘Bringing translation back into the language class’, Practical English Teaching, 10(3). Forrester, M. (1995). ‘Tropic Implicature and Context in the Comprehension of Idiomatic Phrases’, Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 24(1), 1–22. Gass, S. and Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition: an Introductory Course. Abington: Routledge. Jakobson, R. (1959). ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’. In Brower, Reuben (ed.), On Translation, 232–9. Harvard University Press. Jakobson, R. (1971). ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’. In R. Jakobson, Selected Writings, vol. II, 260–6. The Hague: Mouton. Krashen, S. and Terrel, T.D. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. London: Prentice Hall Europe. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Leppihalme, R. (1997). Culture Bumps: an Empirical Approach to the Translation of Allusions. Great Britain: WCB Manufacturers Ltd. Moon, R. (1998). Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English A Corpus-Based Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Murphy, B. (1988). ‘Teaching Translation and Teaching through Translation, Translation Activities in the Language Classroom’, Modern English Teacher 15(4). Murphy, B., ‘Translation Activities in the Language Classroom, 2009’, Teaching English, BBC, accessed 26 January 2011. Peirce, C.S. (1931–58). Collected Papers. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Richards, J.C. (1971). ‘A Non-Contrastive Approach to Error Analysis’, English Language Teaching XXV, 204–19. Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


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Salmon, L. and Mariani, M. (2008). Bilinguismo e Traduzione. Milan: Franco Angeli. Selinker, L. (1972). ‘Inter-language’, International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 10(1–4), 209–32. Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behaviour. United States: Copley Publishing Group. Snell-Hornby, M. (1990). ‘Linguistic Transcoding or Cultural Transfer? A Critique of Translation Theory in Germany’. In Lefevere, A. and Bassnett, S. (eds), Translation, History and Culture, 79–86. London: Pinter. Titone, R. (1984). ‘La Traduzione e l’Insegnamento delle Lingue Straniere: Problemi Psicolinguisticci e Glottodidattici’. In AA.VV., La Traduzione nell’Insegnamento delle Lingue Straniere, 51–75. Brescia: La Scuola. Torop, P. (2002). ‘Translation as Translating as Culture’. In Sign Systems Studies, 30(2), 593–605. Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York.

Maria Pavesi


The role of audiovisual dialogue in second language learning1 has been mainly addressed from the point of view of subtitled foreign products, whereas noticeably less attention has been paid to the kind of input that screen dialogue of fers in terms of the untutored and incidental acquisition of a second or foreign language (cf. Caimi 2002; Ghia 2007; Pavesi, Perego 2008). Moreover, since audiovisual dialogue has only recently become an active topic of research in both descriptive and applied linguistics, overall little is known about which features of the language of TV fiction and films can promote spontaneous second language acquisition. In this paper I will draw on recent corpus-based investigations of the English spoken in fictional screen dialogue, focusing on both similarities and dif ferences between spontaneous conversation and screen dialogue, on the assumption that knowledge of the linguistic features typifying face-to-screen communication is a necessary prerequisite for any in-depth investigation of the full potentials of audiovisual language and audiovisual translation for language learning. In particular, attention will be paid to those linguistic aspects that may be hypothesized to make audiovisual input suitable and advantageous for untutored second language acquisition. More precisely, as face-to-face interaction and interactionally modified input have been shown to be conducive to second language acquisition (e.g. Gass, Mackey 2006), the question to be asked is whether simulated audiovisual interaction contains features which may assist learners in their acquisition of the target language despite the lack of genuine bidirectional interaction in face-to-screen communication. 1

‘Second language learning’ will be used as a general, superordinate term to refer to all forms of acquisition and learning of an additional language.

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1 Audiovisual Input and Second Language Learning A considerable body of experimental research is now available in support of subtitled audiovisual input as conducive to L2 learning and a number of generalizations can be put forward about this kind of input in the comprehension and acquisition of a second or foreign language2 (cf. the literature reviews by Danan 2004; Gambier 2007; Vanderplank 2010; also Ghia 2010). Although not all studies of subtitled audiovisual input exclusively deal with audiovisual dialogue, most of them show the positive ef fects of exposure to fictional conversations on L2 learning (Perego, Pavesi 2007). Non-experimentally, it has also been pointed out that so-called subtitling countries fare better than dubbing countries in foreign language acquisition and learning (Gottlieb 2004). Such an advantage can be clearly related to massive exposure to subtitled L2 dialogues, since films and TV fiction represent the foreign programmes that are most commonly imported and made media-accessible to non-native audiences. Furthermore, with reference to non subtitled audiovisual input, a series of empirical investigations carried out in Malta on the spontaneous acquisition of Italian as a second language have shown that L2 learners may significantly benefit – at all competence levels and in the dif ferent language areas – from watching TV programmes in the second or foreign language (Brincat 1992; Caruana 2003, 2006). Since programmes in Malta were received directly from Italian TV stations and were not subtitled, the experience explicitly provides evidence that screen dialogue meant for native speakers can be advantageous for L2 learners as well.3

2

3

These generalizations mainly concern: the ef fects of dif ferent types of subtitles – inter-, intra- or reverse subtitles – the areas or components of the L2 competence mainly improved by watching L2 subtitled programmes, e.g. listening comprehension, lexis or grammar, and the structural features of the subtitles enhancing access to the aural input, e.g. keywords, spatial arrangement or simplifications. A proviso must be made here as a high degree of similarity in the lexicon between the two typologically dif ferent languages − Italian and Maltese − may have assisted learner-viewers to understand the incoming L2.


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More generally, with reference to the multimodality of audiovisual input, the co-deployment of the verbal and imagery systems (so called ‘dual coding’) is believed to support learners in their matching tasks by making the language input more concrete and richly contextualized (e.g. Danan 2004). The language of films and TV fiction is also appreciable in terms of quantity and quality of input, since it of fers easily available exposure to the L2 in the form of sociolinguistically and pragmatically varied interactions, where speakers are represented as belonging to many dif ferent social groups – in terms of class, occupation, gender and age – and as engaged in a vast array of social situations – at home, at work, at leisure, etc. In the attempt to bridge the gap between the recognition of the acquisitional advantages of audiovisual input and the understanding of how audiovisual dialogue is structured, in this paper I will focus on the linguistic properties of audiovisual dialogue which may be relevant for second language acquisition independently of additional facilitating factors such as interlinguistic subtitling or linguistic proximity between L1 and L2. In this context, I will abstract away from the key issue of the L2 competence level needed to benefit from this type of language exposure. At the moment, suf fice to say that not all audiovisual genres are equally suitable for untutored language acquisition and that quite an extensive vocabulary knowledge is required to understand Anglophone films (Perego, Pavesi 2007; Webb, Rogers 2009a, b). With reference to the complexity of audiovisual input, it is well known from the literature on subtitling that screen dialogue is very demanding as L2 viewer-learners may find it dif ficult to parse the fast, crowded and sometimes unclear speech of TV programmes and films into distinct words (Baltova 1999; Neuman, Koskinen 1992). With arguments easily transferred to dif ferent kinds of screen dialogue, Vanderplank (2010: 9) presents ‘the paradox of television as a medium of language learning’ by stressing how this verbal and supercharged medium makes programmes widely available for use in language classrooms but hardly accessible to language learners. Further empirical investigations are thus required to fully investigate the issue. In what follows I will focus on screen dialogue in English, the language which in this respect has been investigated most broadly and is broadcast and translated to the greatest extent.

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2 The Language of Audiovisual Dialogue Despite the huge impact that the English of the small and big screen has world wide, relatively few studies have investigated the language of audiovisual dialogue so as to produce empirically grounded descriptions and generalizations. In particular, a move forward should be made from the generic notion of screen dialogue as a mere imitation of spontaneous spoken language, inauthentic or even false orality, nor can the preconceived idea be accepted according to which the language of the screen is simply a ‘halfway combination’ of the written and the spoken modes (cf. Marzà, Chaume 2009; Taylor 2004). In the perspective of a more accurate definition of screen dialogue discourse, the situational factors specific to screen language must be carefully identified before the distribution of linguistic features along with their implications for second language acquisition can be fully assessed. On the one hand, audiovisual dialogue fictively aims to represent real life face-to-face interactions; on the other hand, the situational factors involved in its production dif fer markedly from those typical of spontaneous spoken language (Pavesi 2005; Taylor 1999), that is, the participants, communicative objectives and situational context of screen dialogue can be understood only with reference to a multilayered structure in which several addressers − the film maker, the script-writer, the actors, etc. − interact among themselves but also communicate with the silent audience watching the screen and listening to the dialogues (e.g. Bubel 2008; Romero Fresco 2009). For the purposes of this paper, therefore, audiovisual dialogue will be succinctly defined as: scripted dialogic language fictively exchanged between actors in a multimodal context and ultimately addressed to a non-interacting, non-co-present audience. The purposes of such scripted language can be assimilated to those of conversation at one communication level, but at a higher level they are to entertain, narrate to and involve viewers through processes of immersion. For its intrinsic communicative aims and situational features, audiovisual dialogue may hence be hypothesized to share language features with spontaneous conversation, while at the same time exhibiting unique linguistic properties as correlates of its specific situational configuration.


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3 Audiovisual Dialogue as a Model of Conversational Language When looking at audiovisual dialogue in relation to second language acquisition, the first aspect to evaluate is its degree of alignment with spontaneous speech − or its naturalness − the underlying question being whether the language of films and TV fiction is realistic enough to provide good input for language learning or, more precisely, adequate data for the L2 learning of spontaneous spoken language (cf. Forchini, forthcoming; Rodríguez Martín 2010; Rodríguez Martín, Moreno Jaén 2009). This objective is in line with the plea to recognize the role of the spoken language in language teaching and learning (e.g. Carter, McCarthy 2006; McCarthy 1998). Rühlemann (2008) in particular stresses the need to teach conversational grammar along with the grammar of Standard English within a ‘register approach’ which acknowledges the diversity of language use and the primacy of the speech over writing.4 Starting from the same emphasis on conversational language, first and foremost researchers have inquired into the degree of spontaneity or naturalness of screen dialogue, where naturalness is defined in relation to the variety of language which audiovisual dialogue is supposed to approximate in its representation of reality. It should be stressed, however, that we do not intend to show or argue that screen language is like spontaneous conversation and can thus be straightforwardly used as a substitute for face-to-face interaction in language learning. As argued above, audiovisual dialogue with its specific extralinguistic configuration is to be considered a dif ferent register from spontaneous conversation. For this reason it is expected to exhibit a dissimilar linguistic make-up, although a degree of similarity between the two registers is believed to contribute to the evocation of reality essential to audiences’ involvement in narration and viewers’ enjoyment of the audiovisual product (cf. Green et al. 2004). 4

According to Rühlemann, the motivation for such a shift from a monolithic view of language and the renewed emphasis on spoken English lies in the noticeable corpus findings suggesting that ‘conversation works largely by rules dif ferent from those prescribed by S[tandard] E[nglish] grammar’ (2008: 675).

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Three main independent corpus-based investigations have addressed the issue of naturalness or verisimilitude by comparing the language of films and TV fiction with large corpora of face-to-face conversation. All three investigations have used transcriptions of the spoken screen dialogues rather than dialogue lists or Internet scripts and have accounted for large sets of co-occurring features instead of being restricted to a limited set of linguistic phenomena. In this way, the findings obtained from the corpora can be reliably trusted in terms of the width in the comparison between the two registers of spontaneous conversation and screen dialogue. Quaglio’s (2008, 2009) multidimensional analysis of the American sitcom Friends is the most comprehensive book-length lexico-grammatical study of fictional dialogue to date. On the basis of the analysis of more than 100 morphosyntactic and lexical features, Quaglio compares the language of Friends with a subcorpus of American English conversation contained in the Longman Grammar Corpus. He comes to the conclusion that the language of Friends shares the same core linguistic features as conversation mainly by drawing on the first of Biber’s (1988) multidimensional analysis of spoken and written registers. With reference to the dimension of involved versus informational production, the most powerful of Biber’s factors in accounting for linguistic variation, the language of Friends and that of the conversational corpus used for comparison exhibit almost identical mean values − 34.4 and 35.3 respectively (Quaglio 2009: 65). Thus, according to Quaglio’s study, the language of Friends is involved, interactive and af fective like face-to-face conversation as it exhibits a high frequency of key correlated features such as first and second person pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, present tenses, private verbs (e.g. think and feel), contractions, emphatics and thatdeletions. The two following extracts from Quaglio (2009: 58) illustrate the frequent occurrence of these features in both Friends and spontaneous conversation (instances of conversational features have been underlined): (1) (Friends: season 9, episode 20: The One with the Soap Opera Party) Rachel:

Hey…Hi you guys! Listen, you know what? I’m not feeling really well. I think I can’t get out for the play.

Ross:

Really? Wh-what’s wrong?


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Rachel:

I don’t know! I think it’s kind of serious! Oh!, you know…I was watching this thing on TV this morning about…Newcastle disease and…I think I might have it!!

Charlie:

Oh, Newcastle disease is a secretion borne virus that only af fects chickens and…other poultry.

Ross:

…Ok, who is this?

Ross:

I’m sorry, Rachel, this is Charlie Wealer, she’s a colleague.

Rachel:

Oh, hi! I would shake your hand but…I’m sure you don’t want to get my chicken disease.

(2) (Conversation: Longman Grammar Corpus) A:

What are you talking about?

B:

You can’t do what?

A:

Baby-sit.

B:

Then I can’t either. If you can’t go she wanted me.

A:

I don’t know I’ll have to figure something out.

B:

Okay well I think I’m going to go for a walk. I feel so fat, I ate so much at lunch.

A:

How many tacos?

B:

I just had one but then I had a few chips and then I had ice cream pie, I shouldn’t have had that ice cream pie…

Other very recent empirical investigations confirm Quaglio’s findings and of fer further insights into the relationships between conversation and screen dialogue. Evidence that film language as well overlaps with that of spontaneous conversation comes from another corpus study which used a similar methodology to Quaglio’s. By applying Biber’s multidimensional model, Forchini (2008, 2009, forthcoming) compared the language of a set of eleven American films to the Longman Spoken American Corpus. Again, it is in particular Biber’s first and main dimension of involved versus informational production that mostly accounts for the similarity between the films investigated and the language of face-to-face spontaneous interaction.

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On this dimension, film language globally exhibits an overall mean score (35.3) which closely matches that of spontaneous conversation (35.0) and displays many of the same features frequently found in conversation such as personal pronouns, present tense markers, imperatives and private verbs. The following extract from Forchini (2008: 110)’s corpus shows the occurrences in film language of spoken language features, which are emphasized in italics. (3) Speaker 1:

Hey Russ! Rusty. What’s up man? Let me ask you a question now. Are you incorporated? Roll, okay, if you are not, you should really think about it, cos I was talking to my manager last night…

Speaker 2: Bernie? Speaker 1:

No, not Bernie my business manager. Actually.

Thirdly, a series of publications comparing the language of another corpus of ten American films with the conversational section of the British National Corpus have confirmed that several features typifying spontaneous conversation are also found in audiovisual dialogue, although not necessarily to the same extent (Rodríguez Martín, Moreno Jaén 2009; Rodríguez Martín 2010). In particular, by comparing the frequency lists of screen dialogue with two other lists derived from the spoken and written components of the British National Corpus, the language of the Anglophone films has been shown to be closer to spontaneous face-to-face spoken English than to written language. The occurrence of spoken language features in film dialogue has wider implications than mere information on individual frequency counts. Like in everyday conversation, for instance, the frequency of personal pronouns underlies the significance of personal deixis and anaphora in film language, whereas the extensive distribution of the response signal yes points to the pervasive activation of turn-taking and adjacency pairs, two basic organizational structures of dialogicity and co-construction of meaning in spontaneous interaction (Rodríguez Martín 2010).


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The three investigations just considered have the advantage of looking at clusters of features, thus drawing on the assumption that statistical significance of individual features is ‘secondary to the overall tendency suggested by the groups of linguistic features sharing the same or similar discourse functions’ (Quaglio 2009: 52). What appears to be more relevant for second language acquisition purposes is the considerable occurrence in audiovisual dialogue of features of spontaneous spoken language, although the frequencies of individual items may dif fer between the two language registers. The language of screen dialogue cannot in fact be expected to be an exact copy of spontaneous conversation and its naturalness cannot be evaluated simply with reference to the exact quantitative reproductions of individual features. These three independent quantitative studies hence suggest that screen dialogue presents language which in terms of major morphosyntactic, lexical and discourse patterns reproduces to a great extent the spontaneous spoken input to which learners are likely to be exposed in real life. In other words, empirical research indicates that the language of contemporary audiovisual dialogue provides good quality input for second language acquisition since it reproduces to an appreciable extent what learners would obtain from naturalistic exposure as non interacting participants to faceto-face conversations.

4 Moving Beyond Realism: Audiovisual Dialogue as a General Source of L2 Input A dif ferent perspective, however, can be taken when assessing whether screen dialogue is useful input for L2 learners by shifting the focus away from the degree of ‘authenticity’ of screen dialogue and its suitability as a model of real life spontaneous interactions. The question may then be asked whether audiovisual dialogue displays linguistic elements that foster second language acquisition irrespective of realism of input. These features

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may have to do with both similarities and dif ferences between screen dialogue and conversation, provided they make the L2 easier to understand, access and process for acquisition purposes. I will thus concentrate on features that have been described as typifying audiovisual dialogue by focusing on four main characteristics of screen dialogue which dif ferentiate it from spontaneous conversation: (i) euf luency and reduced vagueness, (ii) increased discourse immediacy, (iii) widespread formulaicity and (iv) predictability. A first relevant dif ference between spontaneous and fictional conversation pertains to the greater compactness, grammaticality and linearity of screen dialogue as given by fewer performance phenomena or dysf luencies (cf. Biber et al. 1999). If, on the one hand, audiovisual dialogue does contain a certain degree of the phenomena connected with on-line, unplanned language production and reception such as overlaps, false starts, hesitations and repairs, on the other hand, it has been repeatedly observed that the frequency rate of such dysf luency features is reduced in comparison to spontaneous spoken interaction (e.g. Pavesi 2005; Taylor 1999). Audiovisual language thus resorts to a more ‘normalized’ language than the language it imitates (Rodríguez Martín, 2010) by restricting the features connected to unplanned spoken language to the minimum required to evoke ‘spokeness’ in viewers’ minds.5 While a higher degree of uninterrupted delivery distances audiovisual dialogue from face-to-face conversation, such ‘euf luency’ (Rühlemann 2008: 682) is liable to make the L2 more accessible to less than fully competent viewers (cf. also Ghia 2010). Audiovisual dialogue in this respect is both simplified – through a reduction of the forms making up the repertoire of natural conversation and through greater reliance on the Standard English variety – and easified, or made more comprehensible. Fewer dysf luencies are also consistent with the reduced vagueness reported for the sitcom Friends (Quaglio 2009: 71–86), which in comparison with face-to-face conversation displays, among other features, a

5

Interestingly, it has been shown that during the actual performance actors add to the original written script many of the dysf luency features of impromptu speech, thus achieving greater realism and naturalness (Taylor 2004).


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smaller number of hedges (kind of, sort of), fewer vague coordination tags (or something) and nouns of vague reference (thing, stuf f), as also suggested by Forchini’s (2008) investigation of a corpus of American films. Fewer conversational contractions, such as gonna, gotta, wanna (cf. Rodríguez Martín, Moreno Jaén (2009: 451), also contribute to a more unambiguous language where words and grammatical markers are spelled out, thus reducing the economy of on-line speech production for the benefit of the non-co-present audience. Ultimately, the motivations for a less vague language are to be found in the narrative and entertaining functions that screen dialogue performs in a limited lapse of time, together with the need to guarantee comprehensibility to a large, global audience: for these reasons language is avoided that is interpretable only by participants who share a local context (Quaglio 2009). Reduced vagueness, fewer dysf luencies and morphophonological reductions all contribute to making audiovisual input more normalized and presumably easier to access for second language acquisition purposes. With reference to the constraint of comprehensibility or audience accessibility, audiovisual dialogue has also been found to exhibit greater discourse immediacy, i.e. greater context-boundedness, together with less narrative concern (Quaglio 2009; Forchini 2008, 2009), as narration – one of the major motivations for media enjoyment and media immersion – in audiovisual products inherently relies on the visual component and the overall narrative architecture (Tomaszkiewicz 2009). In screen dialogue, reference is hence made more to the here and now than to displaced events and activities, ‘[s]peakers refer to what is happening at the moment, talk about plans for the near future, make comments or express their feelings about what is observable or happening at the moment’ (Quaglio 2009: 132). In comparison with face-to-face conversation, this is linguistically conveyed by more present tense rather than past tense and perfect aspect markers, fewer third person pronouns with the exception of it, more attributive adjectives as opposed to qualification via wh-pronouns (Forchini 2008; Quaglio 2009). Also, audiovisual dialogue is characterized by the higher frequency of the proximal place adverb here vis-à-vis the lower frequency of distal there (Rodríguez Martín 2010: 450). Other features of immediacy have been reported to characterize audiovisual dialogue. In

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particular, vocatives have been acknowledged as central in the structure of film dialogue starting from early cinematography (Kozlof f 2000: 36). In the form of familiarizers (e.g. guys, man, buddy), they have been found to be significantly more frequent in Friends than in casual conversation (Quaglio 2009: 134, 161). The following excerpt illustrates the immediate, non-narrative concern of screen dialogue and its linguistic correlates (Forchini 2008: 114): (4) Speaker 1:

Mrs Larson? It uh it won’t be much longer, Mrs Larson.

Speaker 2: Oh well is he in a lot of pain? Speaker 1:

No no no. There will be no more pain for your husband. He’s heavily sedated.

Speaker 2: Ok I think I’m gonna go, send little Hal in now. Speaker 1:

No no no. I don’t think that’s such a good idea. With all the pain killers uh the reverend’s not exactly himself.

Speaker 2: Look I think my boy has a right to say goodbye to his father I mean the man means everything in the world to him.

Similarly, greetings and leave takings − other structures contributing to discourse immediacy − have been reported to be scattered throughout the dialogue of the American sitcom Friends (Quaglio 2009: 161) as well as the dialogues of a group of American and British films analysed by Bonsignori et al. (forthcoming). The extracts below, taken from Bonsignori et al’s corpus (3–4), illustrate expressions of greeting (5–6) and leave taking (7–8): (5) Jim:

[…] Oh, good morning.

Maggie:

Hi.


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(6) Ella:

Mrs. Lefkowitz, this is my granddaughter Maggie Feller.

Mrs Lefkowitz:

Hello!

(7) Maggie:

So, thanks for the ride. Thanks for the drinks and the fun, and, uh, we’ll see you guys later.

(8) Amy:

(to Rose) I gotta go.

The immediate concern of audiovisual dialogues presents obvious advantages for L2 comprehension and second language acquisition as it makes input rooted in the here and now, with comprehension relying on the setting represented on screen and the information provided by the actors in the scene. Related to discourse immediacy is the rare occurrence of long turns and side comments, noticed both for TV fiction and film interactions (Quaglio 2009: 48; Taylor 1999). This streamlining as well is liable to make the dialogue easier to follow and understand, as the contents of the exchanges are strictly kept within the frame of the story being narrated (cf. Romero Fresco 2009). Formulacity and predictability together make up a further feature typifying screen dialogue, which at the same time potentially fosters second language acquisition. Following Wray, a formula may be defined as ‘a sequence, continuous or discontinuous, of words or other meaning elements, which is, or appears to be, prefabricated: that is, stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar’ (2000: 465). With reference to second language acquisition, Rod Ellis summarizes the well known need for second language learners to acquire formulae by underlining that prefabricated sequences are both an essential part of mature speakers’ competence and

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help learners get by at the initial stages of development or when their communicative competence is not adequate for the tasks at hand (2008: 75–80). Unanalysed, ready-made chunks may also be a necessary stage in second language development as suggested within usage-based theories of language acquisition (cf. N. Ellis 2008), although opinions diverge on whether language learners, both children and adults, can ‘naturally extrapolate grammatical and lexical information from larger strings’ (Wray 2000: 472). Audiovisual dialogue, on the other hand, has also been described as a ‘prefabricated text’ (Tomaszkiewicz 2001) or ‘prefabricated orality’ (Chaume 2001: 81), that is, constructed speech that has been thought out and created according to some given conventions in order to ensure viewers’ feeling of belonging and participation and assist their comprehension of the storyline. In this case, speech is preassembled because, unlike spontaneous conversation, it is carefully planned ahead, put down on paper, edited and only at the very end of the process acted out orally to sound convincing, attractive and involving to viewers (Cattrysse, Gambier 2008). As part of the conventions of scriptwriting, we do in fact find reliance on recurrent patterns, key words and repetitions used to create cohesion within the film and to dif ferentiate characters or reinforce a leitmotif (Kozlof f 2000: 84–5). As already pointed out, the repetitiveness of communicative situations and topics in audiovisual products is another factor contributing to the establishment of frequent conversational routines or formulae. Recurrent situations and topics are one of the defining non-linguistic features noticed in Friends, in that the American sitcom ‘presents a much more limited number of settings and a much narrower range of types of interactions/ topics’ than casual conversation (Quaglio 2009: 47). Since characters are repeatedly shown to arrive at and leave places, the corresponding conversational routines of greetings and leave takings are overrepresented in Friends as are conversational topics like friendship, sex and dating. As a result of the more limited range of social and situational variables that it represents, the sitcom in general reveals less linguistic variation than spontaneous conversation as given by the disparity in the standard deviation values (4.3 for Friends and 9.1 for conversation) on Biber’s (1988) Dimension 1. That


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is, characters in Friends will use many features of face-to-face conversation in their speech, but they will all tend to speak in a similar way. It may be argued that such situational and linguistic repeatedness is restricted to specific TV series, sitcoms or films, due to the specificity of settings, activities and groups of people represented. There are, however, language uses that re-occur in many individual audiovisual products. Not only have greetings and leave takings been shown to pervade the dialogues collected in dif ferent corpora of audiovisual products (Bonsignori et al. forthcoming; Forchini forthcoming; Quaglio 2009), but also other speech act formulae such as those for thanking and apologizing are frequently used in film language (Rodríguez Martín: 10). Taylor (2006, 2008) as well emphasizes the predictability inherent in the repetitiveness of language choices and stock phrases in screen dialogue and explicitly relates it to the recurrent situations portrayed on both small and big screens. More specifically, the author, who defines the broad spectrum of film language as a macro-genre in itself, introduces the notion of ‘genrelets’ to refer to those situationally-based, encapsulated, formulaic language exchanges which are typically reproduced in films and TV fiction. These patterns may be observed across a range of films, for example hotel reception exchanges, e.g. ‘I’m afraid we’re fully booked’…‘But can’t you do anything?’ Similarly they may re-occur within the same series of films, e.g. ‘The name is Bond, James Bond’, or in various episodes of longrunning television serials: past research has shown how bar talk in the BBC series Eastenders contained many stock expressions often repeated (Taylor 2008: 167). We therefore have the merging of linguistic and situational repetitiveness in audiovisual language with the centrality of formulae in second language acquisition. Firstly, learners may be assisted in their understanding of the incoming verbal input by the predictability of the language choices. Secondly, they may benefit from being exposed to a language rich in the formulaic structures that they need to acquire to become fully competent in the second language. And thirdly − via repetition and variation − they might be assisted along the path which starts from formulae and through analysis moves towards the extraction of individual elements to be combined creatively at later stages.

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5 Conclusion The aim of this paper was to discuss empirical evidence showing that there are linguistic features typifying face-to-screen communication which may of fer privileged access to a potentially very abundant source of L2 input. First of all, as audiovisual input consists of a language similar to spontaneous conversation, it may foster the spontaneous acquisition of conversation structures by L2 learner-viewers. There are other aspects of the language of screen dialogue, however, which may enhance second language acquisition as a whole. These include: greater euf luency and reduced vagueness, greater discourse immediacy, formulaicity and predictability. Crucially, these facilitating properties may at least partially compensate for the obvious drawbacks of such a unidirectional and non-interactive input for second language acquisition. Awareness of the linguistic make-up of audiovisual dialogue may thus be postulated as a necessary prerequisite for any comprehensive investigation of the full acquisitional potentials of audiovisual input in all its forms, including subtitled L2 dialogues in films and TV programmes. The research for this article has been carried out within the international project ‘English and Italian Audiovisual Language: Translation and Language Learning’, generously funded by the Fondazione Alma Mater Ticinensis, University of Pavia.

References Baltova, I. (1988). ‘Multisensory Language Teaching in a Multidimesional Curriculum: The Use of Authentic Bimodal Video in French’, Canadian Modern Language Review, 56(1), 31–48. Biber, D. (1988). Variation across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. and Finegan, E. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman.


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Bonsignori, V., Bruti, S. and Masi, S. ‘Exploring Greetings and Leave-takings in Original and Dubbed Language’. In Carroll, M., Orero, P. and Remael, A. (eds), Media for All: Quality Made to Measure (forthcoming). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Brincat, J. (1992). ‘L’Apprendimento Spontaneo dell’Italiano per Televisione: L’Esperienza dei Bambini dai sei ai dieci Anni a Malta’. In Moretti, B., Petrini, D. and Bianconi, S. (eds), Linee di Tendenza dell’Italiano Contemporaneo. Atti del XXV Congresso Internazionale di Studi della Società di Linguistica Italiana, 501–19. Roma: Bulzoni. Bubel, C.M. (2008). ‘Film audiences as overhearers’, Journal of Pragmatics, 40, 55–71. Caimi, A. (ed.) (2002). Cinema Paradiso. I Sottotitoli nell’Apprendimento Linguistico, special issue of RILA – Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 34. Carter, R.A. and McCarthy, M.J. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Caruana, S. (2003). Mezzi di Comunicazione e Input Linguistico. L’Acquisizione dell’Italiano L2 a Malta. Milano: Angeli. Caruana, S. (2006). ‘Trilingualism in Malta: Maltese, English and “Italiano Televisivo”’, International Journal of Multilingualism, 3(3), 159–72. Cattrysse, P. and Gambier, Y. (2008). ‘Screenwriting and Translating Screenplays’. In Díaz Cintas, J. (ed.), 39–55. Chaume Varela, F. (2001). ‘La Pretendida Oralidad de los Textos Audiovisuales y sus Implicaciones en Traducción’. In Chaume Varela, F. and Agost Canós, R. (eds) (2001). La Traducción en los Medios Audiovisuals. Castelló: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Chaume Varela, F. (2004). ‘Film Studies and Translation Studies: Two Disciplines at Stake in Audiovisual Translation’, META, 49(1), 12–24. Danan, M. (2004). ‘Captioning and Subtitling: Undervalued Language Learning Strategies’, META, 49(1), 67–77. Díaz Cintas, J. (ed) (2008). The Didactics of Audiovisual Translation. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Ellis, N. (2008). ‘Phraseology. The Periphery and the Heart of Language’. In Meunier, F. and Granger, S. (eds), Phraseology in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching, 1–13. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Forchini, P. (2008). Spontaneity in America English: Face-to-Face and Movie Conversation Compared. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Università Cattolica, Milano . Forchini, P. (2009). ‘Spontaneity Reloaded: American Face-to-Face and Movie Conversation Compared’, Corpus Linguistics 2009, University of Liverpool, 21–23 July 2009, accessed 17 June 2011.

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Forchini, P. (2009). ‘Using Movie Corpora to Explore Spoken American English. Evidence from Multi-Dimensional Analysis’. In Selected Proceedings of CLAVIER 09 – Corpus Linguistics and Language Variation Conference, University of Modena, 5–7 November 2009 (forthcoming). Freddi, M.and Pavesi, M. (eds) (2009). Analysing Audiovisual Dialogue. Linguistic and Translation Insights. Bologna: Clueb. Gambier, Y. (2007). ‘Sous-titrage et Apprentissage des Langues’. In Remael, A. and Neves, J. (eds), A tool for Social Integration? Audiovisual Translation from Dif ferent Angles, Special issue of Linguistica Antverpiensia, 6, 97–113. Gass, S.M. and Mackey, A. (2006). ‘Input, Interaction and Output: An Overview’. In Bardovi-Harlig, K. and Dörnyei, Z. (eds), Themes in SLA Research, special issue of AILA Review, 19, 3–17. Ghia, E. (2007). ‘A Case Study on the Role of Interlingual Subtitles on the Acquisition of L2 Syntax. Initial Results’. In Baicchi, A. (ed.), Voices on Translation. Linguistic, Multimedia and Cognitive Perspectives, Special issue of RILA – Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 39, 167–77. Ghia, E. (2010). ‘Audiovisual Translation as Acquisitional input: Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects’, paper presented at the 1st International Language Conference, NUI Galway, 10–11 December 2010. Gottlieb, H. (2004). ‘Language-political Implications of Subtitling’. In Orero, P. (ed), Topics in Audiovisual Translation, 83–100. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Green, M.C., Brock, T.C. and Kaufman, G.F. (2004). ‘Understanding Media Enjoyment: The Role of Transportation into Narrative Worlds’, Communication Theory, 14(4), 311–27. Kozlof f, S. (2000). Overhearing Film Dialogue. Berkeley: University of California Press. Marzà I Ibàñez, A. and Chaume Varela, F. (2009). ‘The Language of Dubbing: Present Facts and Future Perspectives’. In Freddi, M., and Pavesi, M. (eds), 31–9. McCarthy, M.J. (1998). Spoken Language and Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Neuman, S.P. and Koskinen, P. (1992). ‘Captioned Television as Comprehensible Input: Ef fects of Incidental Learning From Context for Language Minority Students’, Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 94–106. Pavesi, M. (2005). La Traduzione Filmica. Tratti del Parlato Doppiato dall’Inglese all’Italiano. Roma: Carocci. Pavesi, M. and Perego, E. (2008). ‘Tailor-made Interlingual Subtitling as a Means to Enhance Second Language Acquisition’. In Díaz Cintas, J. (ed.), 215–25. Perego, E., and Pavesi, M. (2007). ‘Subtitles and Audiovisual Genres for the Language Learner’. In Baicchi, A. (ed), Voices on Translation. Linguistic, Multimedia and


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Cognitive Perspectives, Special issue of RILA − Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 39, 147–66. Quaglio, P. (2008). ‘Television Dialogue and Natural Conversation: Linguistic Similarities and Functional Dif ferences’. In Ädel, A. and Reppen, R. (eds), Corpora and Discourse: The Challenges of Dif ferent Settings, 198–210. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Quaglio, P. (2009). Television Dialogue: The Sitcom Friends vs. Natural Conversation. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Rodríguez Martín, M.E. (2010). ‘Comparing Conversational Processes in the BNC and a Micro-corpus of Movies: Is Film Language the “Real Thing”’, Language Forum, 36(1), 1–15. Rodríguez Martín, M.E. and Moreno Jaén, M. (2009). ‘Teaching Conversation through Films: a Comparison of Conversational Features and Collocations in the BNC and a Micro-corpus of Movies’, The International Journal of Learning, 16(7), 445–58. Romero Fresco, P. (2009). ‘The Fictional and Translational Dimensions of the Language Used in Dubbing’. In Freddi, M. and Pavesi, M. (eds), 41–55. Rühlemann, C. (2008). ‘A Register Approach to Teaching Conversation: Farewell to Standard English?’, Applied Linguistics, 29(4), 672–93. Taylor, C. (1999). ‘Look Who’s Talking. An Analysis of Film dialogue as a Variety of Spoken Discourse’. In Lombardo, L., Haarman, L., Morley, J. and Taylor, C., Massed Medias. Linguistic Tools for Interpreting Media Discourse 247–78. Milano: Led. Taylor, C. (2004). ‘The Language of Film: Corpora and Statistics in the Search for Authenticity. Notting Hill (1998) – A Case Study’. In Miscelanea, 30, Zaragoza: Departamento de Filologia Inglesa y Alemanna, Universidad de Zaragoza, 71–86. Taylor, C. (2008). ‘Predictability in Film Language: Corpus-assisted Research’. In Taylor Torsello, C., Ackerley, K. and Castello, E. (eds), Corpora for University Language Teachers, 167–81. Bern: Peter Lang. Tomaszkiewicz, T. (2001). ‘La Structure des Dialogues Filmiques: Conséquences pour le Sous-titrage’. In Ballard, M. (ed.), Oralité et traduction, 381–99. Arras: Artois Presses Université. Tomaszkiewicz, T. (2009). ‘Linguistic and Semiotic Approaches to Audiovisual Translation’. In Freddi, M. and Pavesi, M., 19–29. Vandeplank, R. (2010). ‘Dèjà Vu? A Decade of Research on Language Laboratories, Television and Video in Language Learning’, Language Teaching, 43(1), 1–37. Webb, S. and Rodgers, M.P.H. (2009a). ‘The Vocabulary Demands of Television Programs’, Language Learning, 59(2), 335–66.

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Webb, S. and Rodgers, M.P.H. (2009b). ‘The Lexical Coverage of Movies’, Applied Linguistics, 30(3), 407–27. Wray, A. (2000). ‘Formulaic Sequences in Second Language Teaching: Principle and Practice’, Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 463–89.



Little research has been done on the implementation of translation in the foreign language classroom – which I will refer to as pedagogical translation or PT. However, the development of pedagogy in foreign language teaching allows us to revise this and to look rigorously at the benefits that pedagogical translation as a multileveled skill of fers – from the lexicon to pragmatics. Therefore, in this article I will focus on how a strategic and operational implementation of pedagogical translation can improve the students’ learning possibilities. The benefits of using translation as part of the curriculum will help language learners to accomplish extraordinary results, as well as direct them towards the long pursued component of autonomous learning.

1 Translation and Language Teaching The exercise of translation has always been related to language teaching in a rather complex way.1 The controversy surrounding its implementation in the classroom came to an end with the communicative approach2 and the establishment of Translation Studies. The communicative approach acknowledged translation as an adequate practice – even though no guidelines on 1 2

See Fernández Sánchez 1998; Gregg 1998; Calvo 1999; García-Medall 2001; Martínez Agudo 2003. Although Cook (2010) disagrees on this.

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how to use it were provided. Translation Studies led to interdisciplinary research across various fields. The work of authors like Ladmiral, Holmes and Lavault raised an interest in translation in the language classroom, which was later developed by other researchers. Nonetheless it remained an extremely unsystematic practice for a number of decades. Also, the shadow of the grammar-translation and the direct methods remained, resulting in its exclusion or incorrect practice. Nowadays, however, translation is generally better accepted despite a general lack of methodology in its implementation. There are dif ferent ways of using translation in the language classroom which we need to dif ferentiate. De Arriba García (1996b) categorizes them as follows: a) interior translation: the language learner uses translation to understand the input and check whether the meaning inferred from the foreign language is correct. This is done usually by students at ab initio levels who have not yet acquired an internalized basic knowledge and whose cognitive processes need to develop further; b) explicative translation: the teacher in the language classroom decides to use translation as a means to save time and allow the students to access the meaning in the foreign language through their mother tongue; c) pedagogical translation: this is not a tool used by the student or the teacher in order to complete another exercise, task or explanation. It is an exercise in itself with a pedagogical value. Each of these variables are relevant if monitored appropriately. The value of PT lies within a set of principles and objectives that will define its role in the curriculum. The integration of translation in the foreign language curriculum has significantly increased in the last decade. This is probably due to a contagious ef fect: the increase in the number of successful new translation-related degrees and masters of fered and the income they generate. It is quite dif ficult to give the appropriate values to translation in the right context as it is a complex and controversial field. Only in the last decades of the twentieth century has translation been approached


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more scientifically. Research in this field has helped to define dif ferent related areas and develop a theoretical and a pragmatic frame for them. This also makes it possible for us to leave behind the problems that translation encountered as a discipline –and which were previously seen as its weaknesses. On another note, and as a result of the interest in the intercultural prospect, our societies have developed a growing curiosity towards foreign languages which has led, in turn, to an increment of language degrees and degrees with a language. The lack of consensus on this grey area means that no arrangement has been reached in terms of the objectives to be attained in this interdisciplinary field. The curriculum is not consistent, and therefore this area expands and develops in dif ferent ways and in accordance with dif ferent conceptions. Nonetheless, PT is a growing concept within the research field and there is a focus on implementing it in its own right in language teaching as a relevant tool throughout the curriculum.3 It is therefore necessary to revisit the value of PT ascribed to a dynamic framework and detached from the history and criticism that have generated its dismissal in the past. It is necessary to outline brief ly why and how PT should be included in the language curricula and to what degree this is useful. Only by doing this can course designers and teachers systematize its implementation and prevent it from being a fruitless exercise. We currently contemplate a panorama in which each educational institution decides when and how to implement PT – of some sort. Whether the interest is genuine or a trend, it does not seem to convey an academic tendency. The curriculum has to be meticulously planned in order to incorporate translation to validate its teaching.

3

See Toury 1995; Mayoral Asensio 2000; Bueno García 2005; Pintado Gutiérrez 2009.

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2 Pedagogical Translation: Implementation The validation of PT entails a precise outline of the objectives and the principles that will ultimately define the general guidelines for the design and practice of teaching translation in foreign language curricula for University students which will in turn result in a clear set of benefits. PT is a special form of communication (Kiraly 1995). This communicative aspect provides translation with the status of a dynamic system that goes hand in hand with pragmatic tendencies in language teaching and the communicative principles inherent to language users – both in the mother tongue and in the foreign language. In order to maintain the main communicative principles of PT it is essential to ensure that the practice does not become an isolated exercise restricted to the linguistic knowledge of the student. Encouraging the students to develop their skills through communication is not an easy task: the teacher acts as a facilitator and needs to count on the student’s will to perform appropriately. Without the student’s appropriate performance the pedagogical value of translation in the language classroom greatly declines. Hence, the teacher needs to be a good catalyst who organizes the classroom adequately – in terms of time, space, material, etc. The teacher should let the student be the centre of the translation exercise. PT does not intend to create specialists in translation but to introduce in the curriculum a practice that entails the employment of the language as a whole. The objectives of PT, according to De Arriba García (1996a, 1996b) and Schäf fner (1998), are the following: a) improving the comprehension of the source text; b) also improving the student’s output; c) developing the knowledge of the foreign language; d) using language contrast ef ficiently and fighting against interferences; e) helping to attain more f luency in the language through reformul-ation; f ) expanding the vocabulary of the student;


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g) consolidating the use of structures in the foreign language through their active use; h) improving the style of the foreign language. How, when and why PT is implemented diverts in various types of tasks depending on the direction of translation (direct or back translation), the linguistic and the cultural elements as well as the topic and the length of the text, the resources that the students can use, etc. That is why the tasks organized around the translation exercise need to be adequate for the students. Teaching PT based on tasks seems to be adequate to conciliate translation and language teaching. It is a feasible practice, it is within the students’ interests, it is inserted in the curriculum, it allows the students to make decisions and the students will also be able to assess it (Martín Peris 2004). The students remain active and interactive entities, they can take the initiative and they can make decisions. The teacher has to organize, advise, support and direct the students. The translation tasks create an important opportunity which leads to ef fective learning. Ultimately, the tasks strengthen autonomous learning and the use of communicative strategies.4 The practice of PT entails the development of dif ferent skills in which the student reconstructs the meaning of the source text through the target text that they produce – depending on the level and the ultimate learning and communicative objective(s). These can be ascribed to the task-based approach to better exploit and work on them. Language competence is acquired through the communicative use of the language, through interpreting and negotiating its meaning, which leads in turn to a relevant interaction between the input and the acquired knowledge (Lee and Van Patten 1995). The appropriate use of PT makes the acquisition of the language easier through its communicative use. Ultimately, it is important to be aware that when talking about translation and communication it is vital to consider that communication in general is not always ideal in the sense of an ideal communicative process (Hernández Sacristán 1999). Communicative 4

See Krawutschke (1989), Oxford (1990, 1993), Al-Kufaishi (2004).

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competence assumes a number of concepts and principles such as that of participation, through which the learners progressively acquire the capacity to operate within a community through their inter-subjective reinterpretation of a particular world through the language (Sánchez Pérez 1993; Villanueva and Navarro 1997). Other variables which are essential in the organization of a communicative environment for any type of teaching, but especially that of PT teaching, include the role of the teacher and the student, as well as other factors that can inf luence in the delivery and the comprehension such as motivation, anxiety, interaction, etc. It is absolutely vital to outline a set of principles for PT in order to observe its place within the general framework of the foreign language curriculum. The latter is the ultimate issue for a realistic and ef fective practice. As part of the curriculum, PT denotes the principles of pedagogical discourse and focuses on interaction (Widdowson 1993: 261). It gives the student the opportunity of negotiating his/her own learning. This way the student and the teacher define each other through the practice of translation.

3 Pedagogical Translation: Benefits If appropriately implemented, students will benefit from translation in various ways associated to the statements discussed above: a) students employ active and passive knowledge of the language – stored in short and long term memory – and skills at dif ferent levels; b) students become aware of communicative strategies: translation forces them to use the language ef fectively in a real context and in order to express a message, they have to look for means to comply with communication and the objectives of the translating activity;5 5

Authors regard translation either as a separate skill from the rest of the skills –although not completely independent: macroskill, or as part of other skills – microskill. For


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c) students work with translation as an interdisciplinary area: translation conforms a crossroads from which they develop various skills (such as reading comprehension and writing) and practice with other substudies areas (such as language discourse, text analysis, etc.); d) students use dif ferent skills in a multidirectional way: namely comprehension and production (House 1980; Johnson 1982; De Arriba García 1996a; Drosdov 2003; Pintado Gutiérrez 2009); e) students learn to develop a frame of mind that includes criticism and autocriticism, interaction and negotiating principles. They are responsible for their production which ought to meet with the requirements of communication and the translation activity per se. In addition, they have to evaluate their translation and be most analytical when working as a team or on their own, in or outside the class. By building an interactive atmosphere the foreign language learners participate in a speech process in which the principle of negotiation is imperative; f ) students learn to develop creativity.6 Through the practice of translation, students discover their ability to find or create dif ferent solutions to the problems they encounter though risky or familiar solutions; g) students become part of a communicative entity by learning that communication goes beyond words, grammar and pure structure. They will learn to use language in a much more ef fective and pragmatic way. The role of the teacher in the classroom is extremely important in creating a successful working environment. This is even more relevant in the case of PT since the teacher is a mere conductor that monitors the progress of the students. It is imperative that the teacher acts as:

6

further discussion about this see House (1980), Johnson (1982), Weller (1989), Kiraly (1995), De Arriba García (1996b), Drosdov (2003). Sauvignon (1983) apud Kiraly (1995) establishes creativity as one of the communicative principles in the teaching of a L2 in the classroom. See also Dulay and Burt (1977), Kussmaul (1995), Roiss (1998), the concepts of intuition (Lavault 1985) and self-confidence (Oxford and Ehrman 1993).

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a) a guide that does not instruct; b) a moderator that contributes but does not control the dynamics of the classroom; c) a mentor to confirm the dif ferent possibilities of translation and their degree of suitability. On the other hand, the translation classroom should be a space open for teaching and learning through discussion and debate. Interaction is essential within these premises between the teacher and the students, between students and between each student and the text. The perfect environment allows for: a) the possibility of implementing a f lexible design depending on the needs and progress of the student groups; b) a space dedicated to discussion, creativity, interaction, criticism and intuition. Only then can we ensure that the translation class is an innovative area in which to foster autonomous learning and self involvement. Nonetheless, the translation classroom does not usually ref lect this reality. As a consequence, neither does the class involving PT that has inherited the approaches used in Translation Studies. The classes are usually taken as a lesson in which the students suggest dif ferent versions that can be discussed with other fellow students even though the teacher seems to have the ultimate word to approve or reject the suggestions. Also, the teacher does not usually take part in these debates: s/he is rather an analytical figure that assesses the dif ferent possibilities. These are, without any doubt, master classes which often result in the following sequence: the students translate a text at home, they present their translation in the classroom, some other student might suggest another possibility of translation, the teacher analyses the possibilities, rationalizes why they are right or wrong and usually finishes by showing the whole class his/her own translation which the students inevitably take as the ideal translation. I advocate for a completely dif ferent prospect of the classroom setup, in line with Kiraly’s social constructivist approach. I understand that


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this model gives us the opportunity to provide a detailed PT programme throughout degree courses and also allows teachers to conduct a structured subject. As a consequence, it gives us the opportunity to reconsider how this practice is implemented within the classroom so as to pursue a collaborative environment between the students, the teacher and the text, in order to create a dynamic learning environment. It most definitely cannot be taken as an isolated ability that only skilful advanced learners are capable of working on.

4 Translation, Technology and Autonomy Autonomy is an important feature for a language learner. Foreign language learners seem to be very reliant on the teacher and the classroom. Ab initio students take the teacher and the explanations s/he gives as the centre of their learning in an instructional manner. However the students have to become gradually more involved in their own learning so the process develops into a more meaningful route. When considering the concept of autonomy it is key to realize that autonomy takes place both inside and outside the classroom. Learning foreign languages requires the interaction of the student inside the classroom and a committed learning outside the classroom. It has been demonstrated that classroom discourse is clearly beneficial for the students. However, even ‘if the teacher’s gradual withdrawal from the learning process is considered the ultimate goal of autonomous learning pedagogy’, as Hale (2009) corroborates, I suggest that the teacher also needs to reveal the significance of collaborative learning. Translation can be thought as the autonomous practice par excellence: we can all imagine an isolated translator working at the desk with a set of dictionaries and a computer. The case of PT, nonetheless, is a very dif ferent type of practice: students are reliant on the teacher in the classroom to initiate and give feedback on their performance. Hence, PT proves dif ficult to

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illustrate the paradigm of autonomous learning: the students tend to fear the detachment from the classroom and find it dif ficult to take responsibility for language learning through pedagogical learning due to a particular set of circumstances.7 The teaching approach will define the design of the class and this will outline, in turn, the degree of autonomy that needs to be developed. The design of the classroom and the autonomy will also describe the tools that the students will be using. In my opinion, for PT to work one should look at the dif ferent types of autonomy to distinguish them and look at how they can be implemented. PT represents a complex picture which can be exploited for autonomous learning purposes in dif ferent ways and degrees. Of course, the degree of autonomy will also be associated to the translation process and the teaching methodology. My proposal, which is set within the collaborative learning environment, adapts to a simplified version of the process of PT that will define the autonomy degrees of this process in the following phases: a) understand the source text; b) de-verbalize the source text; c) re-express the source text on to the target text; d) verify that the target text conveys the same meaning as the source text. The task-based learning approach is suitable to work on these processes in a clear and ef fective manner. Obviously, the processes that I am referring to are in no way discrete cognitive blocks, but they make it possible to work in dif ferent sequences. This approach allows the student to take responsibility for the dif ferent sequenced activities designed to achieve a communicative goal throughout an engaging framework. It entails a pre-task, a task cycle and a post-task. For this approach to work it is imperative that the student completes one cycle at a time before engaging in the following one of the sequence. This 7

This can be a consequence of various factors: the degree of knowledge of the teacher on pedagogical translation, the degree of familiarization of the student with pedagogical translation, how the translation component is outlined, etc.


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way, the students work upon a planned set of activities that imply progression and that require the involvement of the students in order to complete a communicative action.8 This cycle of tasks will provide the student with a guide to completing the translation exercise progressively and with established guidelines. By working on translation in a gradual way, the student will forget the feared task of getting from text A to text B without any perspective.

5 Collaborative Learning Collaborative learning is an exceptional technique to attain a certain degree of autonomy. The task-based learning approach allows students to properly organize the activities proposed. Consequently, the autonomous learning component can be closely monitored.9 Prioritizing a social constructivist learning approach to the detriment of a master class in translation has various outcomes. Dividing the students into groups, pairs or letting them work on their own have an impact upon autonomous learning in dif ferent ways: a) the students can work in small groups and pairs within the classroom. In this environment the students follow the dif ferent sequences of the processes involved in PT. It is not suf ficient to just divide and pair up the students to carry out the activities. It is also imperative that the teacher ensures that there is a balance between the students that interact with each other. The dominator-dominated relationship should be avoided in order to exploit these working environments to the maximum. According to Storch (2000, 2001) we can encounter four situations: 8 9

See Hadley (2000). This does not imply that it is under control and that the learning process can be calculated.

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– the collaborative model; – the domineer/ domineer model; – the domineer/passive model; – the expert/beginner model. The level and type of collaboration is therefore extremely relevant and it will have a considerable impact on the learning outcomes. The first three models can happen between pairs or groups of students. The last one usually contemplates the situation of a classroom in which the teacher takes part in the interaction. But even in this work setting the teacher can establish a collaborative atmosphere in which the expert does not overtake and control the learning setting; b) working outside the classroom changes the collaborating paradigm. The nature of the work done outside the classroom tends to be at an individual level. The learner usually gains a higher degree of autonomy in general completely alone. I consider that the teacher has to teach the students other ways of collaboration that exist outside the classroom and that will trigger a completely dif ferent process of collaborative learning, complexion of the tasks, and problem solving. It is essential to ensure that the final phase concludes accordingly to the teaching and learning approach chosen. If the closing stage is not implemented adequately the whole design will not be completed and the practice will not be suf ficiently relevant.

6 Translation, Technology and Autonomy: A Proposal, Using Tools for Pedagogical Translation In this article I propose to analyse how the individual student can maximize the collaborative learning pattern outside the classroom and bring his/her experience into the classroom. As I have said before, language students normally develop a feeling of unease against the exercise of translation. It


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is in part understandable since it requires a big ef fort and it implies working with a very specific set of skills. The student working on a translation task outside the classroom is inclined to feel isolated. As a general tendency resulting from this, the students experience a sense of discouragement which prevents them from completing the task properly. The most satisfying phase is usually the discussion that follows the verifying of the dif ferent translations that the student has come up with – which will possibly be satisfying only when the student has come close to an adequate solution – ie. the ideal translation. The students’ (de)motivation both inside and outside of the classroom is triggered by socio-af fective reasons. Insecurity and isolation diminish the student’s capacity for success. The teacher needs, therefore, to teach the learner to optimize the learning framework for PT. They need to become familiar with the PT format in order to make the most out of the two interfaces –inside and outside the classroom. To start with, the students hardly ever know which resources they can avail of outside the classroom. These resources can modify the perception of the students’ learning strategies, enabling them to complete the translation task through various collaborative learning tools. These collaborative learning tools are mostly technological and within everybody’s reach and they allow the user to access knowledge that goes beyond that found in the classroom. If technology is used adequately and brought into the class, it will provide everybody with the possibility to collectively construct the translation task with the necessary pragmatic knowledge. Paper dictionaries are still very much trusted by teachers and students. Nonetheless, students are eager to use resources from the internet, the mass information tool par excellence. The amount and types of on-line free dictionaries and other resources of fered is great and can undoubtedly help the students to work on their translating task. At the same time, internet resources are infinite and so varied that it is necessary for the teacher to anticipate how the dif ferent tools might be helpful to the students and the use they can make of it. The same applies to paper dictionaries: they do not always ensure that the students will produce a better target text. They need to know how to use the dictionary in an adequate way.

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Technology allows the PT teacher to work in dif ferent ways with the students according to their objectives. The main technological tools that a teacher can rely on are: a) virtual learning environments (VLE): built for specific purposes according to the teaching and learning settings that they are intended for. There are several: Moodle, Blackboard, Sulis, etc.; b) World Wide Web: a broad environment full of possibilities. The first option can be more or less open – its limits depend on the VLE programme designed and on what the teacher intends to use it for. The second option is much wider and the possibilities of use are immense. The tools that any student can find on the WWW are mainly: a) numerous types of on-line free dictionaries: bilingual, monolingual, synonyms, thesaurus, etc; b) machine translator engines: they substitute a source text with a target text. They almost never produce an appropriate translation mainly because they are not sensitive to the semantic level; c) wiki pages: a type of on-line database created by the designer or teacher of a course which is organized according to the students’ needs; d) webquests: a lesson orientated to a very particular objective. This tool can also be created and managed by the teacher according to his/her criteria; e) chats: the students can exchange views on dif ferent items or topics. The chats can be restricted to the classroom or can be open to any user of the web. They are synchronous interactions so the chat room shows the contributions of all the participants in a time line; f ) forums: on-line discussions which again can be restricted to a certain group or open to all web users. The contributions are stored and they show the particular threads in the site. Each and every one of these tools has a dif ferent function. It is necessary that students are aware of the existence of these tools. If they learn how to utilize these instruments to assist them in the translation task, students


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will certainly maximize the translating task and will engage with collaborative learning, contributing actively and reconstructing a relevant learning environment in the classroom. When students are given a particular text to translate on their own they need to envisage the tasks very clearly according to the translating process as previously mentioned: a) pre-task: the students grasp the meaning of the text, interpret the sense in order to understand the message that will have to be conveyed, become conscious of the translating dif ficulties and translating problems10 to anticipate possible solutions and strategies; b) task: stage in which the students manipulate the source and the target language to express the same message in the target text. Intuition plays a very important role as well as the tools used to either access or transfer the message. It is in this cycle that the student rebuilds a text. S/he does so by utilizing his/her own knowledge, by interacting with tools that provide univocal information and by accessing interactive environments in the web in which s/he can participate. The last two options allow the student to experience collaborative in the outside world; c) post-task: the purpose of this final phase is to conclude the task. It is the most interactive part of the translating practice and the students find themselves in an environment in which they will illustrate two dif ferent types of collaborative learning. The first corresponds to the collaborative learning that the student carried out inside the classroom. This way, the student brings knowledge from the world s/he has access through the tools used into the classroom. The second type of collaborative learning resides in the verification phase itself: students can discuss in pairs, groups or with the rest of the class their dif ferent outcomes. It is still a negotiating process in which the most adequate solutions are revealed.

10

See Nord (1991).

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The teacher participates more actively in the post-task. According to my beliefs, his/her role should not rely on correcting but rather in guiding the student towards a language and a socio-cultural negotiation. The students should then present their translations. The debate that takes place within the classroom in the final stage of the activity is extremely important for the exercise. It is imperative that the students have worked through the first two tasks so that they maximize their role at this point. Finally, and regardless of the frequency of the use of translation, the students need to be aware of the properties of the dif ferent tools used in the autonomous learning systems within a task-based learning approach. Each of them will provide the learner with dif ferent ways to benefit from them: a) on-line dictionaries are helpful if exploited correctly. Many of them show dif ferent equivalents: some more general, others more specific, compound words, etc. They sometimes even of fer dif ferent equivalents depending on the language variant or the register. There is an increasing number of dictionaries that of fer the user the possibility of either opening a forum about one particular word or expression, or accessing an existing forum; b) forums are very valuable tool that teachers do not pay attention to very often. As I said before, it is an environment in which the students feels part of a broad translating community in which they can discuss and benefit from experiences that go beyond their class fellows and their teacher. The boundaries are less strict and they interact in an absolutely real setting in which people genuinely interested in translation get involved in particular matters; c) automatic translation tools can be useful for the learner to spot the translating problems of the machine rather than relying on it to achieve the transference of a message. These frameworks are usually ideal for the students who work in translation weekly or fortnightly and who build up their knowledge and their solving skills by exposing themselves to the outside world. It is a valuable tool that the teacher should consider. It provides the students with learning values that go beyond a limited knowledge in the classroom or the traditional


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paper dictionary. The students engage actively in a practice that demands the development of a very specific set of skills, socio-cultural knowledge and language proficiency. It allows the students to apply an interest that they have acquired inside the classroom outside the classroom. In this taskbased learning practice, the students become their own boss, they react to a situation, to a given problem that they encounter while trying to carry out their assignment. The fact that they have to account for their outcomes within the posttask phase of the cycle means that every student will be able to support their option with a significant background that they have acquired during the pre-task and the task-cycle. Only after searching for a solution can the students explain why they maintain such an option or why they would change it.

7 Conclusion The integration of technological tools for teaching purposes either inside or outside the classroom proves to be very beneficial. The degree of success depends on the theoretical grounds for its inclusion. For PT, the advantages are true in two exceptional ways: a) on the one hand PT demands that the students work autonomously for a considerable part of the activity – which makes it easier to work towards autonomy; b) on the other hand, there are numerous translating tools – such as online dictionaries, chats and forums – that the language students can avail of and which will help them to develop their translation skills. It is obvious that this benefits most of the students who have a high command of the language, but the benefits for the engagement of lower-level students cannot be dismissed since autonomous and semi-autonomous learning hold significant value for language teaching and learning.

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Translation in the language classroom is a valuable tool. Students learn to use the skills they need to translate and establish networks between the relevant components of the language. Ultimately, they manipulate their knowledge strategically through their creativity, their imagination, their intuition and their self-confidence. They become independent and selfdirected by means of creating a space for criticism and interaction. PT allows us to analyse and work on dif ferent levels of the language – from the lexicon to pragmatics – and also show how a strategic and operational work on the translating task through collaborative learning can become a consistent criterion to help the language learners accomplish extraordinary results as well as direct them towards successful autonomous learning. The PT classroom can therefore be positively associated to reality. In fact, I would claim that amongst the skills included in the curricula it is probably the one that of fers a more genuine space for reality and autonomy. Through translation, students experience how to deal with dif ferent realities. Nonetheless, this proposal needs to be inscribed within a methodological frame – only then can it become key to language teaching. Despite the dif ferent teaching and learning practices, the implementation of this skill will have a positive impact on the learning process. The translation classroom constitutes a complex entity which is not easy to define or organize, and a collaborative learning environment allows the creation of a significant pedagogical space that creates a bridge between dif ferent learning methods in dif ferent spaces. This way, translation is guaranteed to constitute a dynamic framework in which the student is a mediator between two linguistic and socio-cultural realities.

References Al-Kufaishi, A. (2004). ‘Translation as a Learning and Teaching Strategy’, Babel, 50(1), 45–9. Bueno García, A. (2005). ‘L’enseignement de la Traduction au Carrefour d’une Société Mondialisée’, Meta, 50(1), 263–76.


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Calvo Pérez, J. (1999). ‘Lingüística aplicada’. In López, Á. et al., Lingüística General y Aplicada, 323–48. Valencia: Universitat de València. Cook, G. (2010). Translation in Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP. De Arriba García, C. (1996a). ‘Introducción a la Traducción Pedagógica’, Lenguaje y Textos, 8, 269–83. De Arriba García, C. (1996b). ‘Uso de la Traducción en Clase de Lenguas Extranjeras: la Traducción Pedagógica’, Actes del III Congrés Internacional sobre Traducció, 519–29. Drosdov, T. (2003). Aprender una Lengua: Metodología de la Enseñanza y del Aprendizaje. Madrid: Editorial Aedos. Dulay, H. and Burt, M. (1977). ‘Remarks on Creativity in Language Acquisition’. In Burt et al. (eds), Viewpoints on English as a Second Language, 95–126. New York: Regents Publishing Company. Fernández Sánchez, E. (1998). ‘El Aprendizaje de una Segunda Lengua Concebido Como la Adquisición de un Nuevo Sistema Cognitivo’. In Cifuentes Honrubia, J.L. (ed.), Estudios de Lingüística Cognitiva, 197–205. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante. García-Medall, J. (2001). ‘La Traducción en la Enseñanza de Lenguas’, Hermeneus, 3, 113–40. Gregg, K.R. (1998). ‘Second Language Acquisition: History and Theory’. In Mey, J.L. (ed.), Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics, 809–16. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Hadley, G. (2000). ‘A Task-Based Approach to Teaching English for Science and Technology’, accessed 10 November 2010. Hale, C. (2009). ‘The Problematic Panacea: Conf lict in an Autonomous Learning Environment’, Language Research Bulletin, 24, accessed 30 October 2010. Hernández Sacristán, C. (1999). Culturas y Acción Comunicativa. Barcelona: Octaedro. House, J. (1980). ‘Übersetzen Im Fremdsprachenunterricht’, Angenwandte Übersetzungs wissenschaft, 7–17. Johnson, K. (ed.) (1982). Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology. Oxford: Pergamon. Kiraly, D.C. (1995). Pathways to Translation. Kent: Kent State University Press. Krawutschke, P.W. (ed.) (1989). Translation and Interpreter Training and Foreign Language Pedagogy Strategy. American Translator Association. Series 3. Binghamtom: Sunny Press. Kussmaul, P. (1995). Training the Translator. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Lavault, E. (1985). Fonctions de la Traduction en Didactique des Langues. Paris: Didier Érudiction.

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Lee, J. and Van Patten, B. (1995). Making Communicative Teaching Happen. New York: McGraw Hill. Martín Peris, E. (2004a). ‘¿Qué Significa Trabajar en Clase con Tareas Comunicativas?’, RedELE, accessed 1 November 2010. Martínez Agudo, J. (2003). ‘La Psicolingüística y el Aprendizaje de Lenguas’. In Doval Reixa, I. and Pérez Rodríguez, M.R. (eds), Adquisición, Enseñanza y Contraste de Lenguas, Bilingüísmo y Traducción, 251–8. Vigo: Servicio de Publicacións da Universidade de Vigo. Mayoral Asensio, R. (2010). ‘Aspectos Curriculares de la Enseñanza de la Traducción e Interpretación en España’, accessed December 2010. Nord, C. (1991). Text Analysis in Translation. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Oxford, R. (1993). ‘Research on Second Language Learning Strategies’, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 175–87. Oxford, R.L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies. Massachusetts: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Oxford, R. and Ehrman, M. (1993). ‘Second Language Research on Individual Dif ferences’, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 188–205. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pintado Gutiérrez, L. (2009). ‘A Full Irish Breakfast: Interlanguage Perspective, Intercultural Prespective, or Both?’ In Witte, A., Harden, T. and Ramos de Oliveira Harden, A. (eds), Translation in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 327–42. Oxford: Peter Lang. Roiss, S. and Weatherby, J. (1998). ‘A Need for Reorientation. Creative Strategies for the Teaching of Translation into a Foreign Language’. In Beylard-Ozerof f, A. et al. (eds), Translators’ Strategies and Creativity, 213–21. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Sánchez Pérez, A. (1993). Hacia un Método Integral de la Nseñanza de Idiomas. Madrid: SGEL. Schäf fner, C. (1998). ‘Qualification for Professional Translators’. In Malmkjær, K. (ed.), Translation and Language Teaching. Language Teaching and Translation, 117–33. Manchester: St. Jerome. Storch, N. (2000). ‘How Collaborative is Pair Work? ESL Terciary students Composing in Pairs’, Language Teaching Research, 5, 29–53. Storch, N. (2001). ‘An Investigation into the Nature of Pair Work in an ESL Classroom and its Ef fect on Grammatical Development’. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne.


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Principales Características y Dificultades traductológicas de un diccionario cultural

1 Introducción: la Evolución del Género Lexicográfico Tendemos a pensar que los diccionarios son un producto del presente o de un pasado reciente, probablemente de cuando Gutenberg inventó la imprenta. Pero, si nos adentramos en la historiografía de los diccionarios, comprobamos cómo su nacimiento se remonta a los principios de la civilización. Al igual que la lengua, el diccionario nace fruto de un consenso tácito de la sociedad en que se fragua. En cierta medida, todos somos autores de los diccionarios de nuestro tiempo pues, como hablantes, inf luimos en la modelación de nuestra lengua y del mismo modo, todos los diccionarios que pasan entre nuestras manos, a lo largo de nuestras vidas, actúan como cinceles de nosotros mismos, dándole forma y precisión a nuestro caudal léxico. Aunque existen por miles, todos trabajan con un denominador común, las palabras. Como afirma Bayle (1690), no hace falta subrayar las bondades de los diccionarios; todos conocemos su utilidad y, en general, su facilidad de consulta. Pero, a pesar de tratarse de una herramienta que todos utilizamos, en muchos casos, es un gran desconocido. Para llegar a los diccionarios actuales, el desarrollo de la lexicografía ha sido un proceso lento y de decantación. Las primeras manifestaciones lexicográficas se remontan a las primeras civilizaciones y están estrechamente vinculadas con el nacimiento de la escritura. Debemos volver pues, nuestras miradas hacia la cultura mesopotámica, aquella que nos dio la primera escritura de la que tenemos constancia: la cuneiforme. Este sistema de

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escritura no fue un préstamo tomado de otras civilizaciones; los especialistas en la materia (Cohen 1958; Mounin 1985) reconocen que los habitantes de Mesopotamia y, en particular, los sumerios, son los inventores del primer código conocido de escritura. De esta manera, los primeros materiales lexicográficos se originan en la zona de Mesopotamia; si bien, no podemos hablar de diccionarios, tal y como lo conocemos hoy, pues se trata de listados léxicos escritos en tablillas de arcilla, sí podemos referirnos a ellas como proto-diccionarios y hablar de una paleo-lexicografía (Boisson 1991). Esta primera lexicografía no se limitaba a listados aleatorios del léxico; en realidad, al igual que ahora, la lexicografía de entonces se caracterizaba por su función didáctica. De hecho, su desarrollo se llevó a cabo, por regla general, en las escuelas de escribas, edub-ba1 y, del mismo modo que ocurre hoy en día con los diccionarios, se realizaban distintos tipos de tablillas. Cavigneaux (1980–1983: 610) ha establecido una clasificación de ellas, así por ejemplo, podemos hablar de listas ordenadas temáticamente o por medio de principios semánticos o gráficos, también se realizaron silabarios cuya información es fonética, es decir, nos proporcionan información acerca de cómo debemos pronunciar los vocablos. Pero, además, encontramos algunas listas que son, al mismo tiempo, vocabularios y silabarios. Tenemos, asimismo, constancia de tablillas cuneiformes bilingües sumerio-acadio que se remontan al siglo XV a. C. o sumerio-persa del siglo V a. C. La llegada de la civilización grecorromana, supuso un cambio en las tendencias lexicográficas; dichas culturas no sintieron la necesidad de efectuar listas léxicas que recogiesen el mundo que les rodeaba. En cambio, otra necesidad lexicográfica nacía de las circunstancias lingüísticas y sociales del momento: la necesidad de glosar los textos antiguos. A diferencia de otras culturas, tanto en Grecia como en Roma, no se desarrolló una actividad lexicográfica bilingüe; la actividad lexicográfica que desarrollaron estos pueblos fue de tipo glosográfica pues, para comunicarse con otros pueblos, tanto los griegos como los romanos, contaban con intérpretes.

1

En sumerio, casa de las tablillas.

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Así pues, en Grecia que, hasta el siglo V no se disponía de una lengua nacional sino de un mosaico de dialectos, encontramos algunos libros de glosas que explican palabras técnicas, dialectales, o incluso, palabras opacas de algún escritor. De hecho, el más antiguo de estos documentos data del siglo V a. C. y se refiere a un léxico de Homero pues, su obra, era objeto de estudios entre los sofistas. Esta labor glosográfica se perpetuó en el tiempo hasta bien entrado el Renacimiento. Al igual que ocurriera en Grecia y en Roma, durante la Edad Media en Europa Occidental, una gran parte de la labor lexicográfica se centró en la glosografía de los textos latinos, ya que para el lector de éstos, cada vez más alejado del latín y más próximo de las lenguas vulgares, muchos de estos textos resultaban ininteligibles. Encontramos algunos ejemplos de estas anotaciones marginales e interlineales en el caso de España, en las Glosas Emilianenses (s. XI) o, en el de Francia, en las Glosas de Reichenau que datan de finales del siglo VIII. En este periodo, además de la actividad glosográfica se dio otro tipo de actividad lexicográfica que también permanecería hasta bien entrada la Edad Moderna: la etimología.2 Con la entrada en la Edad Moderna, la invención de la imprenta, la conquista de América y el desarrollo del comercio, cambia el modelo lexicográfico. Elio Antonio de Nebrija asentó las bases de la lexicografía moderna en Europa con sus obras. Nebrija, además de innovar dentro del campo de la lexicografía, fue el primero en elaborar una gramática de una lengua vulgar. A pesar de su escasa difusión, con la Gramática de la lengua castellana (1492)3 Nebrija logra darle al castellano el mismo estatus que ostentaba hasta ese momento, la lengua latina como lengua de cultura. Durante todo el siglo XVI eclosionan con fuerza en Europa los repertorios bilingües y plurilingües. Se opera un cambio sustancial dentro de la lexicografía europea al reducirse el tamaño de las obras, puesto que el incremento de los intercambios comerciales, supone un nuevo público al que se dirigir las 2 3

Ya en la Antigüedad encontramos algunos ejemplos de obras que centran su interés en la etimología; sin embargo, el máximo exponente de esta actividad es San Isidoro de Sevilla y su obra Etymologiae (613–36). Acceso en línea al texto completo con anotaciones a la obra: .

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obras lexicográficas: comerciantes y viajeros que necesitan un instrumento de fácil transporte y manejo que les ayude en la comunicación. Por tanto, esta nueva necesidad social implica una transformación de los repertorios y origina el nacimiento de los repertorios de tamaño reducido. El camino hasta los diccionarios monolingües, en los que la definición lexicográfica adquiere un carácter metalingüístico, es largo. Debemos esperar hasta el siglo XVII, para que se den los primeros pasos hacia este nuevo tipo de diccionarios. De esta manera, el primer ejemplo de lexicografía monolingüe española, lo encontramos en la obra de Sebastián de Covarrubias Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española (1611). Igualmente, la implantación y el desarrollo de las primeras Academias de la lengua en Europa inf luyeron de manera determinante en la evolución de la lexicografía monolingüe y dio lugar a un tipo de lexicografía, la académica, con un marcado carácter institucional. En este sentido, la primera Academia que publicó un diccionario fue la italiana: Vocabolario deali Accademici della Crusca (1612); este repertorio marcaría el desarrollo de la lexicografía académica en toda Europa. Así, L’Académie française publicó en 1694 el Dictionnaire de l’Academie française, mientras que la española, tardaría aún unos años en publicar su obra: el Diccionario de Autoridades (1726–1739). Durante el siglo XVIII, la aparición de un nuevo tipo de repertorio lexicográfico desborda los límites de los diccionarios: la enciclopedia. Si bien la idea de este tipo de repertorio nace con Aristóteles (384–322 a. C.), considerado como el padre de la enciclopedia, la concepción moderna de la enciclopedia se fragua durante el XVIII. Con la obra de Chambers Cyclopaedia or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Science (1728)4 publicada en dos volúmenes, por primera vez se relacionan temas con rigor científico; se utilizan referencias del tipo ‘véase’ y ‘véase también’; este repertorio intentó traducirse al francés, pero no se logró. Organizado en tres partes: arte, ciencia y oficios fue ordenado alfabéticamente. 4

Una de las características más destacable de la enciclopedia moderna es que, en tanto que repertorio lexicográfico, deja de ser obra de un solo autor para convertirse en una obra colectiva. La Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (1751–1772) de Diderot y Alembert se conronó en la obra cumbre de la ilustración.


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El siglo XIX, desde la perspectiva lexicográfica, es el siglo de los diccionarios no académicos y de los diccionarios enciclopédicos, pero igualmente, resulta una de las etapas más f lorecientes de la lexicografía académica.5 El desarrollo de las ciencias se verá ref lejado en los diccionarios y, de manera general, podemos distinguir dos posturas: una normativa y, en consecuencia, restrictiva y, otra de tipo extensivo, es decir, la tendencia a incluir toda clase de términos. La primera de las posturas es defendida por la lexicografía académica, refractaria a la inclusión de neologismos provenientes de las ciencias, mientras que la segunda surge, en cierto grado, como contestación a la academia y como reclamo publicitario. Asimismo, el siglo XIX se caracteriza por la publicación de numerosos diccionarios no académicos y, consecuencia de ello, los diccionarios comienzan a ser considerados como productos comerciales. La lexicografía no académica del primer cuarto de siglo, alardea del número de vocablos que incluyen los repertorios y, especialmente, hace gala de la incorporación de neologismos procedentes de las ciencias y las artes y, en el caso de España, de términos procedentes de América. Curiosamente, la independencia de las colonias españolas en América, supuso que éstas dejasen de recibir material bibliográfico procedente de España, en este sentido, podría afirmarse que se quedaron huérfanas.6 El vacío resultante, en lo que a la lexicografía se refiere, rápidamente fue cubierto por los editores franceses, quienes vieron una oportunidad de mercado en el continente americano. Así, la lexicografía enviada a aquellos países desde Francia, era elaborada por lexicógrafos españoles expatriados en el país vecino.

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Especialmente en España, pues, además de la publicación de numerosos repertorios nacidos de la iniciativa privada, la Academia publica diez ediciones de su diccionario; se trata de las ediciones comprendidas entre la cuarta y la decimotercera, publicadas de manera sucesiva en 1803, 1817, 1822, 1832, 1837, 1843, 1852, 1869, 1884 y 1889. Cf. a este respecto la misiva del gramático Andrés Bello a Mendíbil, fechada en Santiago de Chile en 1831; citada por Margarita Lliteras en el ‘Estudio introductorio’ que realizó a la edición de la Gramática castellana de Vicente Salvá, Arco/Libro, Madrid, 1988, 17–18.

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2 Rasgos Diferenciales de los Diccionarios: el Diccionario Cultural Con la llegada del siglo XX, los repertorios lexicográficos de todo tipo surgen con fuerza y entramos en un periodo de expansión que todavía hoy perdura. De este modo, el mercado editorial ha visto f lorecer innumerables obras de carácter lexicográfico; basta con echarle un vistazo a las estanterías de cualquier librería para sorprenderse con la gran variedad de libros que llevan en su título la palabra diccionario. Este hecho hace que nos preguntemos ¿Qué es un diccionario? Aunque, a priori, parezca que la respuesta es sencilla, veremos cómo ésta no se encuentra exenta de dificultades, pues si nos ceñimos a una respuesta restrictiva, corremos el riesgo de marginar bastantes repertorios cuyas características se adecuan a lo que podría entenderse por diccionario; mientras que si nuestra respuesta es en exceso abierta, dejaríamos que pasaran a formar parte de dicha clasificación obras que sólo tienen en común algunas características y, en particular, el uso de la palabra diccionario en su título. No resulta difícil encontrar numerosas definiciones sobre lo que es o debería ser un diccionario; de hecho, todavía hoy existe cierta dificultad a la hora de definir las distintas obras lexicográficas; así, en numerosas ocasiones, vemos cómo se usan de manera indiscriminada los términos diccionario, vocabulario, tesoro o glosario para referirse a obras de carácter lexicográfico. Hemos creído, por tanto, oportuno ofrecer la definición de cada uno de estos términos con la finalidad de adentrarnos más adelante en la definición de la palabra diccionario y, a partir de ella, mostrar cuáles son las particularidades de un diccionario cultural. Según Haensch (1997: 46–7), un glosario hoy en día, al igual que en la Edad Media, es un inventario de palabras que figura, generalmente, al final de una obra literaria para explicar aquellas palabras cuyo significado se supone desconocido para el lector. Asimismo, un glosario también es un listado o repertorio de palabras, generalmente no muy extenso, que pertenecen a un subconjunto del léxico, esto es, terminologías técnicas, palabras jergales o coloquiales. De esta forma, el término glosario nos indica que la colección de vocablos no pretende ser ni sistemática ni exhaustiva.


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En cuanto al término diccionario, el problema se presenta cuando las definiciones nos son representativas de la gran variedad lexicográfica existente. Así pues, de todas las definiciones consultadas, la que nos parece más representativa es la que nos ofrece el Diccionario de lingüística (1979: 194):7 El diccionario es un objeto cultural que presenta el léxico de una (o varias) lengua de trabajo bajo forma alfabética, dando de cada término un cierto número de informaciones (pronunciación, etimología, definición, […]; estas informaciones intentan permitir al lector traducir de una lengua a otra o colmar las lagunas que lo permitan comprender un texto en su propia lengua. El diccionario intenta también dar el dominio de los medios de expresión y ampliar el saber cultural del lector. La manera de leer un diccionario es la consulta.

De esta definición, nos gustaría destacar la consideración del diccionario como un ‘objeto cultural’; aunque a primera vista pueda parecer una definición un tanto vaga, en realidad, resulta contundente, dado que ref leja la interrelación entre lengua, léxico y cultura. Quemada (1967: 14) ahonda un poco más en el factor cultural del ‘genero’ diccionario y lo define como un hecho tanto social como lingüístico o científico. Efectivamente, no podríamos hablar de cultura y excluir a la sociedad, a las civilizaciones de las que emana la cultura. De esta manera, nosotros consideramos que el diccionario, además de un objeto lingüístico es un objeto de características específicas que ref leja una realidad compleja nacida de una civilización, de una cultura determinada. En las últimas décadas numerosos autores8 han consagrado diferentes trabajos a la caracterización y clasificación de los distintos tipos de reper-

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Hemos utilizado la traducción española del Dictionnaire de Linguistique de Larousse de J. Dubois et alii. La traducción de este diccionario está editada en España por Alianza Editorial; los traductores son Ortega, I. y Domínguez, A. y la dirección y adaptación de la obra corre a cargo Yllera, A. Cf. Dubois, J. y C. (1971): Introduction à la lexicographie: le dictionnaire, Larousse, París; Fernández-Sevilla, J. (1974): Problemas de lexicografía actual, Bogotá, Instituto Caro y Cuervo, 44–66; Guilbert, L. (1968): ‘Dictionnaires et linguistique. Essai de typologie des dictionnaires monolingue français contemporains’, Langue française, 2, 4–29; Haensch, G. (1982): ‘Tipología de las obras lexicográficas’, G. Haensch et alii La lexicografía. De la lingüística teórica a la lexicografía práctica, Madrid, Gredos,

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torios lexicográficos con la finalidad de definir y caracterizar lo que es un diccionario. El intento de taxonomía de las obras lexicográficas ha sido abordado en numerosos trabajos con principios, métodos y fines distintos; sin embargo, se trata de una tarea ardua y compleja que, por lo general, nunca es definitiva. Ya en 1989, Alain Rey ref lexionaba sobre la evolución del mundo lexicográfico y se planteaba la dirección que éste debía tomar. En el marco de esa ref lexión Rey advertía sobre la necesidad de un cambio dentro del ámbito de la lexicografía y nos hacía partícipes de una idea que, con el transcurso de los años fue tomando forma: el diccionario cultural; finalmente, esa idea vio la luz en el año 2005 bajo el título: Le dictionnaire culturel en langue française. Pero, antes de adentrarnos en lo que nos ofrece un diccionario cultural frente a otro tipo de repertorio lexicográfico, debemos abordar algunos de los rasgos que lo caracterizan como tal y que nos ayudarán a distinguirlo de las enciclopedias y de los diccionarios enciclopédicos; si bien con estos últimos a veces, resulta difícil establecer los límites que los separa. De esta manera, la enciclopedia, como su propia etimología nos indica, tiende a cubrir el ciclo de las cosas; según el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española,9 es una obra que trata de muchas ciencias, mientras que diccionario, según Rey (2005), es una obra que hace el inventario de la manera en que decimos las cosas. En las enciclopedias, la selección del léxico y del contenido no suele obedecer a un plan determinado, se trata, por tanto, de obras de tipo extensivo. Además, como norma general, la información que ofrecen las enciclopedias es histórico-descriptiva y no lingüística, por lo que se omite la ref lexión metalingüística de los términos. Igualmente, una de las características más destacables es la inclusión de

9

95–187; Hausmann, F.J. (1977): Einführung in die Benutzung der neofranzösischen Wörterbücher, Tubinga; Malkiel, Y. (1958): ‘Distinctive Features in Lexicography: A Typological Approach to Dictionaries Exemplified with Spanish’, Romance Philology, XII, 366–99 y (1962): ‘A Typological Classification of Dictionaries on the Basis of Distinctive Features’, Problems in Lexicography, International Journal of American Linguistics, Bloomington, 3–24. Edición electrónica.


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imágenes en color, si bien este rasgo no es exclusivo de las enciclopedias.10 No obstante, como el propio Rey afirma (1989) cada vez más, estas fronteras se difuminan y encontramos diccionarios como el TLF11 y el Oxford que poseen un discurso didáctico-enciclopédico con miles de ejemplos. Este mismo autor muestra una opinión bastante desfavorable sobre los diccionarios enciclopédicos: Ces petits monstres savants, ils mentent en faisant de leurs mots prisionniers, d’une langue des fictions, des idées, des calques des choses

La opinión de Rey resulta insuficiente para definir un diccionario enciclopédico; al igual que los diccionarios de lengua y las enciclopedias, su ordenación es alfabética12 y, a grandes rasgos, tanto las enciclopedias como los diccionarios y los diccionarios enciclopédicos, comparten elementos comunes. Si bien en una primera aproximación las diferencias entre un diccionario enciclopédico y uno de lengua, no resultan evidentes, un examen más profundo nos proporcionará las claves acerca de sus diferencias. De este modo, la primera característica reseñable de los diccionarios enciclopédicos es su carácter mixto entre un diccionario de lengua y una enciclopedia. A diferencia de la enciclopedia, los diccionarios enciclopédicos incluyen una breve descripción lingüística; de igual modo, los diccionarios enciclopédicos incorporan abundante terminología y sus definiciones son de naturaleza enciclopédica. Como norma general, los diccionarios enciclopédicos son monolingües y la ordenación del material léxico es alfabética. No obstante, la selección del léxico y del contenido no suele obedecer a un plan determinado, sino que, al igual que las enciclopedias, se trata de repertorios de tipo extensivo y no selectivo. Asimismo, una de las características más destacables es la inclusión de imágenes en color, ya sea como coadyuvante de la información ya sea como elemento decorativo.

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La lexicografía didáctica, en particular, también se caracteriza por la inclusión de imágenes, láminas y apéndices en los diccionarios de lengua. Trésor de la langue française. Existen enciclopedias cuya ordenación es temática.

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Martínez de Sousa (1995: 137) nos ofrece un listado de características comunes de los diccionarios enciclopédicos: a) Su contenido se presenta en orden alfabético de las entradas en que se ha dividido el conjunto de la materia, la cual aparece interrelacionada con un diccionario de lengua. b) Los artículos de cierta entidad van firmados por sus redactores, lo que se convierte en garantía de seriedad en el tratamiento de la materia. c) La dirección y los principales cometidos en la realización de la obra se confían a especialistas en lexicografía. d) Incluye biografías de científicos, técnicos, artistas, personajes populares, etc., así como nombres geográficos. e) Se ilustra con fotografías, dibujos, esquemas, mapas, planos, etc., sea en color o en blanco y negro, situados en el texto, en láminas fuera del texto o en ambos. f ) Los artículos de cierta extensión suelen ir dotados de una bibliografía proporcionada a la extensión y a la calidad del tema tratado. g) Los artículos se interrelacionan mediante adecuadas remisiones de unos a otros para completar la información acerca de un tema. h) Se prevé la publicación de suplementos para poner al día la materia. Finalmente, quisiéramos esbozar brevemente, algunas de las características de los diccionarios culturales; así, a diferencia de los diccionarios de lengua, un diccionario cultural se centrará en desarrollar el entramado cultural que encierra los vocablos. No obstante, no se trata de un discurso enciclopédico, lleno de datos y referencias, sino de un discurso fundamentado en la historia y en el uso del término en cuestión. De hecho, los diccionarios culturales nos ofrecen un viaje a través de sus vocablos; en ellos podemos encontrar información metalingüística, pero también datos sobre la representación que supone una palabra en una cultura dada, así como las concepciones del mudo elaboradas a partir del lenguaje por distintas civilizaciones. De esta manera, un término tan corriente como cerezo, cuya definición en cualquier diccionario de lengua sería muy similar, en un diccionario cultural como, Le dictionnaire culturel en langue française, nos permite acceder a información tan diversa como el significado simbólico


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de este término en la cultura nipona o una cita de Plinio en la que se nos habla de la aclimatación del cerezo en Occidente, asimismo, también se nos proporciona información sobre numerosas pinturas en las que el cerezo se constituye en el eje central de la obra. Estos pincelazos, a grandes rasgos, nos permite apreciar las notables diferencias entre el diccionario de lengua, el enciclopédico, la enciclopedia y el diccionario cultural, pues el diccionario cultural, a diferencia de las enciclopedias y diccionarios enciclopédicos, ofrece datos seleccionados con una idea claramente diferente, la de mostrar el recorrido cultural de un término, ya sea en cultura determinada o en varias. Lo importante, no es la abundancia de información, sino la calidad y la consistencia de ésta. En cuanto al diccionario de lengua, como su propio nombre indica, se limita expresamente a la lengua en su sistema y no a la incidencia de los términos en otros ámbitos distintos del lingüístico; mientras que el diccionario cultural, además de ofrecernos, en algunos casos, la misma información que un diccionario de lengua, también nos proporciona el desarrollo cultural del término.

3 La Traducción de Diccionarios Desde el punto de vista traductológico, la traducción de diccionarios supone un desafío para el traductor. Actualmente, la traducción se entiende como una herramienta de comunicación cultural, es decir, los estudios de traducción ya no centran tanto sus investigaciones en el aspecto lingüístico que implica el acto de traducción, como en el hecho cultural que conlleva. Cuando traducimos no trasladamos palabras de un sistema a otro como una simple operación de permuta, sino que trasladamos ideas y conceptos en función de la cultura que las recibe. En los últimos años, dentro de los Estudios de Traducción se viene defendiendo la postura del traductor como mediador cultural o, más concretamente, como lo define Guidere (2000), como un experto en comunicación cultural. De esta manera, se espera del traductor que no sólo traduzca la parte lingüística del texto, sino que su actividad también se vea ref lejada en aquellos aspectos culturales que

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intervienen en la comunicación.13 Se requiere, por tanto, el papel activo del traductor dentro de todo el proceso y, en consecuencia, sus conocimientos sobre la cultura meta. Dependiendo del tipo de texto al que el traductor se enfrente, éste empleará unas técnicas u otras que le permitirán trasladar el mensaje con la mayor fidelidad posible; todo ello sin olvidar que la fidelidad estará condicionada por la aceptabilidad del texto en la cultura de llegada. Además, estos requisitos necesarios en cualquier traducción implican otra dificultad: la inteligibilidad del mensaje, por lo que cualquier opción no es válida. Existen algunos casos en que la traducción adolece de cierta ambigüedad u opacidad terminológica, sin embargo, en la gran mayoría de ellos, el traductor cuenta con que el receptor desenmarañe el significado ayudándose del contexto. No obstante, cuando se trata de un diccionario esta estrategia se ve limitadas por varias razones. La primera y que normalmente, suele pasar desapercibida es el gran prestigio social con que cuentan las obras lexicográficas. Los diccionarios alcanzan, en muchas ocasiones, el carácter de autoridad, es decir el lector busca en ellos, la respuesta verdadera, la única y más autorizada. Esta consideración social en que los diccionarios se convierten en portadores de la ‘verdad absoluta’, implica que el traductor deba intentar minimizar los aspectos ambiguos u opacos de su traducción y así, conseguir que la obra conserve sus funciones y su prestigio. Precisamente en este punto es donde el traductor se encuentra con otro escollo característico de este tipo de textos. Al tratarse de textos cuyas

13

Ya Hewson y Martin (1991) en su obra Redefining Translation. The variational approach, Londres, Routledge, se referían al traductor como un operador cultural u operador de la traducción con la finalidad de subrayar el papel activo del traductor dentro del proceso de traducción, ya que, a veces, el traductor ha sido denostado o, simplemente, considerado como un operador aséptico. Asimismo, Hatim y Mason (1990, 1997) en The Translator as Communicator, Londres, Routledge, postulan que cualquier actividad de interacción lingüística, es un acto de comunicación y, por tanto, no puede ser considerada de manera aislada, sino como parte de la vida social. Así pues, al considerar la traducción como un acto de comunicación, la función que desempeña el traductor se concibe como la de un comunicador.


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convenciones textuales están tan marcadas, el traductor tendrá bastantes limitaciones que mermarán su libertad a la hora de traducir. El primer obstáculo con el que éste se tropieza es la definición lexicográfica. Todos conocemos que las definiciones lexicográficas están sujetas a ciertas restricciones como la limitación de la extensión y la claridad expositiva. Aunque el principio de claridad expositiva no siempre se cumple, el de la extensión es incuestionable. En consecuencia, el traductor de diccionarios deberá contar desde un principio, con que el texto original y el meta parten con estas dos restricciones. Otros de los elementos que debemos considerar durante el proceso traductológico es que mientras el lexicógrafo trabaja desde su cultura y para un público perteneciente a esa misma cultura, el trabajo del traductor consiste, normalmente, en trasladar un mensaje desde una cultura extranjera a la suya y a un público diferente al de la cultura de origen. Todo ello implica que el traductor deba recurrir a una serie de estrategias que le ayuden a cumplir con su cometido. La cuestión traductológica se complica más si cabe, cuando debemos traducir un diccionario cultural. Newmark (1997: 52), habló en su momento de palabras culturales para referirse a aquellos términos, muy propios de una cultura, y que presentan un alto grado de dificultad traductológica; este sería el caso por ejemplo, de las numerosas denominaciones que emplean los esquimales para referirse a los distintos estados de la nieve. Por su parte, Galisson (1991) hace alusión a las palabras con carga cultural compartida CCP para referirse al ‘valor añadido’ al significado ordinario de las palabras. Dicho ‘valor añadido’ es conocido por los hablantes nativos de una lengua, pero su descodificación resulta casi imposible para un hablante no nativo por carecer de algunas de las referencias culturales que son muy propias de una civilización determinada. Así pues, Galisson nos ofrece el ejemplo siguiente: Aujord’hui, c’est vraiment le tour du poisson. En este caso, el término poisson encierra varios significados: de un lado, el significado literal o lingüístico, pez o pescado, pero de otro lado, este término posee un significado cultural: la referencia a una fiesta típica francesa: le poisson de avril (1 de abril). La comprensión de este ‘valor añadido’ de la palabra es lo que sirve como marca de pertenencia y de identificación cultural. Nosotros por nuestra parte, añadimos una tercera categoría: el signo lingüístico cultural. Nos referimos a ese tipo de palabras que, en su origen,

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no designaban una realidad concreta, sino que nacían fruto del ingenio del hombre y que, con el paso del tiempo, se han consolidado e incluso han sufrido un proceso de resemantización; como consecuencia de este proceso, dichos términos han pasado a formar parte de nuestro caudal léxico. Sin extendernos demasiado en este nuevo concepto, ya que dentro de esta categoría se pueden establecer subcategorías, quisiéramos explicarlo a través de algunos términos procedentes de la mitología grecorromana. Así por ejemplo, un término culto y concreto puede convertirse en un término más amplio y popular e incluso, en ocasiones, el uso de este vocablo pierde su origen; es decir, una gran parte de los hablantes desconoce lo que originó el uso actual de dicho término. De este modo, utilizamos el término adonis para referirnos a un hombre hermoso, desconociendo, en muchos casos, el mito del que nace. Otro ejemplo sería el empleo del vocablo midas: en este caso, mientras que en inglés utilizamos la expresión Midas touch, en español desaparece por completo la alusión a este término. Sin embargo poseemos una frase que tiene su origen en él: lo que toca lo convierte en oro. La traducción de este tipo de vocablos encierra una serie de dificultades traductológicas que deben ser consideradas dentro del proceso traductor, ya que en muchas ocasiones, el término existe en ambas culturas, pero lo que varía es su uso. Para abordar la traducción de este tipo de léxico cultural y de los diccionarios, en particular, el traductor puede recurrir a diferentes técnicas, una de ellas y quizá, la más extendida, es la adaptación como técnica de traducción.14 Pascua-Febles (1998: 160) señala que las adaptaciones pueden llevarse a cabo mediante tres técnicas: – Ampliación – Sustitución – Omisión

14 En traducción, el término adaptación también puede ser utilizado para referirse a una remodelación sustancial del texto meta, es decir, a un cambio que afecte a la estructura interna, externa e, incluso, al mensaje del texto original.


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De estas tres técnicas, en el caso de los aspectos culturales, la ampliación como técnica de traducción suele ser la más favorable para resolver los problemas inherentes a la traducción. De hecho, esta técnica puede resultar de gran ayuda al traductor cuando las características del texto le permiten completar una información cultural a través de una explicación o de una nota a pie de página. Pero, cuando el texto presenta unas limitaciones tan claras como las de la definición lexicográfica, esta opción se reduce. No parece pertinente que el traductor de un diccionario proporcione, a pie de página, una explicación más detallada de un término. Igualmente, el margen con el que se encuentra el traductor de diccionarios para la aplicación de esta técnica dentro del propio texto, dada la limitación de extensión característica de las definiciones lexicográficas, resulta casi anecdótica. Si por el contrario, ante estas dificultades, el traductor opta por la técnica de sustitución, al tratarse de vocablos cuya carga semántica tiene un gran componente cultural, se corre el riesgo de no encontrar un equivalente en la lengua de llegada. Este sería el caso, por ejemplo, de querer sustituir el término ANTIOPE, en francés, por un equivalente en español. En esta ocasión, este término funciona como el acrónimo de un servicio de teleinformática: Adquisición Numérica y Televisualización de Imágenes Organizadas en Páginas de Escritura. Este vocablo suele aparecer en las pantallas de los televisores franceses, sin embargo, en España este caso no se da. Así pues, el traductor deberá recurrir a la técnica de ampliación para solventar lo mejor que pueda esta asimetría entra la lengua original y la lengua de llegada. Otro caso sería el término athénée; en un primer momento, podemos pensar que no plantea ningún tipo de problema, ya que, en español, disponemos de un equivalente: ateneo. No obstante, antes de precipitarnos a dar este equivalente, es decir, emplear la técnica de la adaptación a través de una sustitución, debemos valorar el significado del término en la cultura de origen. En Bélgica y en Suiza, la palabra athénée se emplea para designar un establecimiento de enseñanza secundaria, mientras que en España e Hispanoamérica, utilizamos dicho término para referirnos a unas instituciones culturales, nacidas en el siglo XIX a imagen de las francesas, donde se reunían científicos y hombres de letras; de hecho, todavía hoy, existen ateneos en España. Pues bien, en este caso, el traductor deberá valorar si resulta pertinente efectuar una ampliación en la que se explique

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la diferencia de significado del término entre una cultura y otra o, por el contrario, estima que la información es irrelevante y, en consecuencia, decide emplear un equivalente. En cuanto a la técnica de omisión, como herramienta para solventar una dificultad a la hora de traducir un término con amplia carga cultural, puede resultar desaconsejable. En este caso, el traductor deberá sopesar especialmente, la pérdida de información que supone omitir un término, ya que, como decíamos al comienzo de nuestro trabajo, una de las características de los diccionarios es que son obras de consulta y no de lectura, además de tratarse de obras de referencia desde una óptica social. Por tanto, la omisión de una entrada en un diccionario podría pasar desapercibido, pero también se corre el riesgo de que no sea así y la obra pierda parte de ese prestigio que le otorga de manera innata el usuario.

4 Conclusiones Tras el breve recorrido realizado sobre los inicios de la lexicografía, hemos podido observar cómo desde que el hombre desarrolló el sistema de escritura ha sentido la necesidad de inventariar el léxico con el que denomina el entorno que le rodea. La técnica lexicográfica se ha decantado con el transcurrir de los siglos y la evolución de los repertorios lexicográficos ha caminado de la mano de la evolución del hombre. El diccionario, en tanto que objeto cultural, es testigo de las necesidades del hombre en las distintas etapas de nuestra historia. Durante la Edad Media, las glosas nos muestran las carencias que teníamos para comprender una lengua, el latín, cada vez más opaca, más alejada de la sociedad; en la Edad Moderna, nacen los primeros repertorios de tamaño reducido, fruto del auge de desplazamiento de comerciantes y viajeros y, con motivo de ello, los primeros diccionarios multilingües y bilingües, además de comenzar su andadura la lexicografía monolingüe de las lenguas modernas.


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Finalmente, en la Edad Contemporánea asistimos a una eclosión de todo tipo de obra de carácter lexicográfico que pone de manifiesto la necesidad que todavía hoy, sentimos de seguir inventariando el mundo que nos rodea. Pero al igual que cualquier otro producto que se comercializa, el diccionario está sujeto a las exigencias del mercado y, en su caso, a las de las editoriales. Así pues, en un mundo en que las comunicaciones acortan las distancias y, en cierto grado, homogenizan las culturas, nace un nuevo tipo de repertorio lexicográfico: el diccionario cultural. La traducción de cualquier diccionario supone abordar una serie de dificultades inherentes a las especiales características del texto que debe ser traducido. Asimismo, el traductor de diccionarios, a diferencia de aquel que traduce otro tipo de texto, verá limitada su libertad a la hora de emplear los distintos recursos traductológicos. La limitación de espacio será uno de los mayores desafíos a los que se enfrente el traductor de diccionarios, pues la macro y la microestructura del diccionario original, supondrán los límites del texto meta. De esta forma, la definición lexicográfica será uno de los elementos que más cercenen la libertad, puesto que la traducción de ésta deberá ajustarse, lo más posible, a la extensión de la original. Como hemos visto, la adaptación como técnica de traducción se presenta como una de las herramientas clave, tanto para la traducción de los elementos culturales como para la traducción de diccionarios. El diccionario, en tanto que objeto cultural, necesita de esta técnica para ser traducido; no obstante, las distintas maneras en que son llevadas a cabo las adaptaciones: ampliación, sustitución y omisión suponen que, en la traducción de los repertorios lexicográficos, no siempre se puede recurrir a ellas. Esto se debe, como señalábamos con anterioridad, a las especificidades del texto y a las convenciones textuales de éste, pues no resultará del todo adecuado encontrar en un diccionario traducido, una nota a pie de página en la que el traductor nos informe sobre algún aspecto de la entrada en cuestión del diccionario. Finalmente, en el caso de la traducción de diccionarios, la postura del traductor, en tanto que mediador cultural, recobra cierta importancia, ya que, de entre las numerosas decisiones que tomará, éste deberá enfrentarse a una en particular: abordar la traducción desde una concepción de homogeneidad cultural o, por el contrario, intentar respetar las características

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que nos identifican y nos unen como civilización, como cultura y, a la vez, nos diferencian de las demás civilizaciones. Esta es una puerta que dejamos abierta para otros debates.

Referencias bibliográficas Bayle, P. (1690). ‘Preface’, Dictionaire Universel, Contenant Generalement tous les mots François tant Vieux que Modernes, et les Termes de toutes les Sciences et des Arts[…] d’Antoine Furetière, Tome I (La Haye: Arnout and Reinier Leers, s.p.). Boisson, C., Kirtchuk, P. y Béjoint, H. (1991). ‘Aux Origines de la Lexicographie: les Premiers Dictionnaires Monolingues et Bilingues’, International Journal of Lexicography, 4(4), 261–315. Cavigneaux, A. (1980–1983). ‘Lexikalische Listen’. En Edzard, D.O. (ed.), Reallexicon der Assyrologie und Vorderastischen Archäologie, volume 6, 609–41. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Cohen, M. (1958). La Grande Invention de l’écriture et son évolution. Paris: Imprimerie nationale et Librairie Klincksieck. Dubois, J. y otros (1979). Diccionario de lingüística. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Galisson, R. (1991). De la langue à la culture par les mots. Paris: CLE International. Guidere, M. (2000). Traduction et Publicité. Paris: L’harmattan. Haensch, G. (1997). Los diccionarios del Español en el Umbral del Siglo XXI. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. Martínez de Sousa, J. (1995). Diccionario de Lexicografía Práctica. Barcelona: Bibliograf. Mounin, G. (1985). Histoire de la Linguistique des Origines au XXe Siècle. Paris: PUF. Newmark, P. (1987). Manual de Traducción. Versión Española de Virgilio Moya. Madrid: Cátedra. Pascua-Febles, I. (1998). La Adaptación en la Traducción de la Literatura Infantil. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Quemada, B. (1967). Les Dictionnaires du Français Moderne. Étude sur leur Histoire, leurs Types et leurs Méthodes. Paris: Didier. Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la Real Academia Española, consultado el 17 de noviembre 2010.


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Rey, A. (coord.) (2005). Le Dictionnaire Culture en Langue Française. Paris: Le Robert Dictionnaires. Rey, A. (1989). ‘Le Français et les Dictionnaires Aujourd’hui’. In Helmy Ibrahim, A. (coord.), Lexiques, xi–xxi. Renes: Ouest Impressions Oberthur.

Part Three

Technology

Emanuela Cotroneo

Da Facebook a Ning per imparare l’italiano: quando il social network fa didattica

1 Introduzione A partire dagli anni Novanta il fenomeno dell’e-learning ha caratterizzato diversi ambiti della formazione e ha of ferto nuove modalità di fruizione di contenuti didattici per l’apprendimento/insegnamento delle lingue straniere: la dif fusione delle connessioni a basso costo e l’uso di piattaforme tecnologiche hanno infatti permesso l’abbattimento delle frontiere spazio-temporali, ottimizzato le occasioni di pratica linguistica e favorito lo sviluppo di corsi online (Poli 2004). Il 2001, noto come l’anno della svolta, è stato contraddistinto dalla consapevolezza che l’e-learning rappresentasse la risposta adeguata alla richiesta di aggiornamento continuo, nell’ottica del lifelong learning (Bonaiuti 2006). Le piattaforme1 sono così diventate ambienti virtuali di apprendimento per un sempre maggior numero di apprendenti della lingua italiana che attraverso strumenti di comunicazione sincrona e asincrona, risorse multimediali, link e documenti hanno esercitato la propria competenza linguistica, all’interno della propria comunità

1

Esistono tre tipologie di piattaforme e-learning: i CMS consentono di creare e rendere disponibili contenuti didattici; gli LMS, oltre alle funzioni del CMS, permettono di monitorare tutti gli aspetti del percorso formativo; gli LCMS, infine, rappresentano un’evoluzione degli LMS e utilizzano tecnologie web per la creazione, l’indicizzazione e il reperimento di materiali. Un termine più generale per definire questi ambienti di apprendimento è Virtual Learning Environment o VLE (Macrì 2007, Torsani 2009).

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virtuale di apprendimento.2 Dopo una rapida crescita del fenomeno e-learning si è però assistito a un rallentamento:3 Woodill (2004) ha evidenziato diversi limiti nell’uso di questa risorsa, tra i quali il focus sulla tecnologia a scapito dell’instructional design,4 l’insuf ficiente conoscenza dei processi di apprendimento/insegnamento e la scarsa comprensione delle specificità dei media elettronici. O’Reilly (2005) ha indicato come elemento chiave del successo di un servizio web la capacità di interpretare correttamente le specificità della rete: nasce così il Web 2.0, la seconda generazione di servizi del World Wide Web, caratterizzata dalla partecipazione attiva degli utenti, dalla collaborazione e dallo scambio di informazioni online attraverso specifici strumenti, noti sotto il nome di social software o social media (Bonaiuti 2006), che enfattizzano gli aspetti sociali della rete. Come emerge in Torsani (2009), gli elementi caratterizzanti questa seconda versione della rete sarebbero infatti le applicazioni sociali (Twitter, Facebook), le interfacce ricche simili alle tradizionali applicazioni desktop, l’uso di folksonomy ovvero la creazione e la gestione collaborativa di tag da applicare a contenuti da parte degli utenti stessi e la condivisione di contenuti attraverso weblog, forum e wiki.

2

Come evidenzia Macrì (2007) la FAD ha avuto un’evoluzione in base ai soggetti e alla metodologia utilizzata. La FAD 1, che va dalla fine dell’Ottocento fino agli anni Sessanta, non prevedeva attività di tutoraggio e si basava inizialmente sulla distribuzione dei materiali per corrispondenza; in tempi più recenti ha usufruito di piattaforme CMS. La FAD 2, che va dagli anni Sessanta agli anni Novanta, prevedeva oltre alla distribuzione dei materiali (video, cd rom) anche il sostegno dei tutor e, con l’evoluzione tecnologica, l’uso di piattaforme LMS. Infine, la FAD 3 ha valorizzato il ruolo della comunità di apprendimento e la creazione di materiali ipertestuali e multimediali in itinere. 3 Romiszowski negli anni Settanta aveva formulato una legge, nota come il Phoenix ef fect, secondo la quale ogni tecnologia sarebbe soggetta ad una rapida crescita, alla morte e a una lenta rinascita (Romiszowski 1974). Una rappresentazione del ciclo di vita dell’elearning, che richiama questa legge, è consultabile al link . 4 L’Instructional Design è un campo di indagine che si occupa di definire le regole per la scelta dei metodi di istruzione più adeguati, che tengano conto delle condizioni e delle diverse tipologie di apprendimento (Calvani 2004, Ranieri 2005).

Da Facebook a Ning per imparare l’italiano

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Con l’evoluzione dal web al web 2.0 si è sviluppato l’e-learning 2.0 (Downes 2005): si tratta di un nuovo modo di concepire l’apprendimento/ insegnamento, che considera anche l’importanza dell’informalità e valorizza, in contrapposizione alla ‘chiusura’ delle piattaforme, la ricchezza e l’apertura della rete e delle comunità di interesse che in essa nascono spontaneamente. Sono quindi emersi nuovi strumenti e nuove metodologie per l’apprendimento collaborativo e con essi la rif lessione sul loro uso e sul loro impiego (Bonaiuti 2006). È stato così elaborato un nuovo paradigma di apprendimento, definito Connettivismo, che ha l’obiettivo di spiegare la modalità di apprendere tipica dell’era digitale: secondo Siemens (2004) sarebbe la rete stessa a dare luogo all’apprendimento in quanto esso dipenderebbe dalla cura delle connessioni che permettono di accedere alla conoscenza.5 Gli strumenti tipici del web 2.0 possono, in quest’ottica, acquisire una notevole importanza nelle fasi di progettazione ed erogazione di percorsi formativi, in quanto favoriscono la creazione di connessioni tra gli apprendenti (Fini, Cigognini 2009). Quali le ricadute derivanti da questo nuovo scenario? Quali le potenzialità per la didattica della lingua italiana a stranieri? Quali gli aspetti problematici? In questo contributo ci sof fermeremo in particolare sull’analisi di alcuni strumenti di social networking utilizzabili per l’apprendimento/ insegnamento dell’italiano a stranieri: dopo un’analisi di alcune funzioni e applicazioni di Facebook utili, a nostro avviso, per l’apprendimento e il rinforzo linguistico, descriveremo i social network nati espressamente per l’apprendimento delle lingue straniere, con particolare attenzione a 5

Nel suo articolo Connectivism: a Learning Theory for the Digital Age l’autore mette in luce i limiti delle teorie del Comportamentismo, Cognitivismo e Costruttivismo in quanto considerano l’apprendimento in base a ciò che accade dentro un individuo mentre in un mondo di relazioni e connessioni facilitate dalla tecnologia sono le connessioni tra gli individui a rappresentare una nuova modalità di apprendimento in quanto i cambiamenti che avvengono a livello di membri della rete hanno inf luenze su tutta la rete: ‘A network can simply be defined as connections between entities. Computer networks, power grids, and social networks all function on the simple principle that people, groups, systems, nodes, entities can be connected to create an integrated whole. Alterations within the network have ripple ef fects on the whole’ (Siemens 2004).

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Livemocha. Illustreremo infine le potenzialità del web service Ning, che permette la creazione di social network chiusi da utilizzare nel proprio contesto classe, riportando i risultati di una prima analisi delle sue potenzialità e dei suoi limiti in campo prettamente linguistico.

2 I social network Che cos’è innanzitutto un social network? Alla base di questo strumento tipico del web 2.0 e del concetto stesso di social network o rete sociale stanno, come emerge in Fini (2006), alcuni studi di psicologia sociale, di sociologia e di antropologia dei primi anni del secolo scorso noti come Social Network Theory. La Social Network Analysis si occupa, in particolare, di studiare la struttura delle reti interazionali che si instaurano tra gli individui: la società è concepita come una rete di relazioni, le quali inf luiscono sul comportamento stesso dei partecipanti alla rete. Le reti possono quindi essere analizzate e rappresentate in base alle relazioni (legami) tra gli individui (nodi). Le reti sociali oggi possono anche costituirsi on line, grazie agli strumenti di social networking che permettono agli utenti di entrare in comunità virtuali relazionandosi tra loro, sul piano professionale o non professionale:6 i social network, infatti, si focalizzano ‘on building online communities of people who share interests and/or activities or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others’ (da Wikipedia cit. in Berger, Texler 2010: 159). Il loro scopo principale è, infatti, allargare la cerchia delle proprie conoscenze, in modo diretto oppure indiretto, condividendo

6

Un social network ad uso professionale, volto alla creazione di contatti in base ai propri interessi lavorativi, è LinkedIn ; tra i social network dedicati alla socializzazione e al tempo libero possiamo indicare, solo a titolo di esempio, Facebook , MySpace e Netlog .


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messaggi, immagini e video. I siti di social networking si dif ferenziano dagli altri siti web per alcune specifiche caratteristiche: la pagina del profilo, nel quale l’utente si descrive e si fa conoscere condividendo risorse; la rete di amicizie, rappresentata dall’elenco degli utenti amici con l’immagine che li rappresenta; il sistema di messaggi pubblici, che permette di scrivere brevi messaggi visibili a tutti; un sistema di messaggi privati, trasmessi solo agli utenti selezionati. Tra le ragioni pedagogiche legate all’uso dei social network, l’AASL, una divisione della American Library Association, riporta gli aspetti sociali dell’apprendimento che è favorito dalle opportunità di condividere e apprendere con gli altri: gli apprendenti hanno necessità di sviluppare la capacità di condividere conoscenza con gli altri, sia in presenza sia a distanza, utilizzando sitemi di comunicazione sincrona e asincrona (Berger, Texler 2010). ‘[L]’elemento rilevante di questi servizi […] è la connessione tra persone: il Web, nato per realizzare una connessione ipertestuale di documenti, ha finito oggi per collegare direttamente le persone. Nell’ottica del knowledge management, sapere da “chi” si può ottenere una certa informazione, far parte di un determinato network, avere la possibilità di essere “presentati” ad altre persone tramite i propri contatti sono tutte attività di notevole valore, realizzate grazie ai servizi di social networking’ (Fini 2006: 186). Se in ambito educativo è di notevole importanza una rif lessione condivisa sull’uso di questi strumenti da parte dei più giovani, in relazione alla privacy e alla legalità e nell’ottica di una più generale Media education (Ardizzone, Rivoltella 2008), in ambito linguistico le ricadute didattiche possono essere notevoli: prenderemo quindi ad esempio Facebook, il social network attualmente più dif fuso in Italia,7 per evidenziarne potenzialità e criticità.

7

Il sito , nel gennaio 2011, indica Facebook come il servizio più utilizzato in Italia (con il 57,65 percento di preferenze). Della dif fusione di Facebook tra gli italiani tratta anche un articolo pubblicato sul sito del 19.10.2010 dal titolo Italiani campioni di Facebook siamo i più connessi al mondo.

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3 Facebook per la Didattica dell’Italiano L2 Facebook è il social network fondato nel 2004 da Mark Zuckerberg, studente di Computer Science alla Harvard University allo scopo di mettere in contatto tra loro gli studenti iscritti alla sua università. Questo servizio fu ben presto esteso agli studenti delle scuole superiori americane e, dal 2006, aperto a tutte le persone dai 13 anni in su. Oggi è uno dei siti più popolati al mondo e conta più di 600 milioni di utenti. Come recita lo stesso slogan di questo social network, Facebook ‘aiuta a connetterti e rimanere in contatto con le persone della tua vita’:8 dopo la registrazione, all’utente è infatti richiesto di inserire informazioni su di sé e di invitare altri amici ad utilizzare il servizio. Tra gli ingredienti principali di questo social network ci sono gli aggiornamenti di stato, brevi frasi che gli utenti scrivono per comunicare cosa pensano o cosa fanno, che possono essere commentati con frasi o con espressioni di gradimento predisposte (mi piace/ non mi piace più); per le comunicazioni più lunghe esistono invece le note, molto simili a un documento di testo, e i messaggi di posta interna, inviati solo agli utenti selezionati. La comunicazione in sincrono può invece avvenire attraverso l’uso della chat. Una prassi comune è, infine, la segnalazione di link a pagine web e video di Youtube insieme alla condivisione di proprie immagini e video (Guerrini 2010). Dal maggio 2007, le interfacce di programmazione del sito (API) sono state rese pubbliche dando la possibilità a sviluppatori e programmatori di arricchire di contenuti la piattaforma: sono nate così le applicazioni, che comprendono un ampio ventaglio di quiz, giochi e proposte per l’ascolto di musica, vendite online, ecc.9 La dif fusione eterogenea di Facebook in termini spaziali oltre che in termini di età degli iscritti, come emerge in tab. 12 e 13, ci permette di ipotizzare un notevole coinvolgimento delle diverse tipologie di apprendenti che in Italia e nel mondo studiano la lingua e la cultura

8 9

Fonte: . Il blog fornisce aggiornamenti sulle nuove applicazioni, descrivendone i contenuti e le modalità di utilizzo.

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italiana,10 malgrado sia la fascia dei giovani adulti e degli adulti ad esserne maggiormente inf luenzata. Tabella 12 Continenti presenti in Facebook nel mese di dicembre 2010 (adattato da ) Continente

Utenti

Percentuale d’uso

Nord America

186.126.740

59,65%

Europa

169.718.660

35,75%

Asia

117.151.400

13,76%

Sud America

52.870.200

33,76%

Africa

19.649.500

18,90%

Australia ed Oceania

11.656.460

55,61%

Tabella 13 Fasce di età presenti in Facebook nel mese di dicembre 2010 (adattato da ) Età

Utenti

13–15

35.882.300

16–17

36.962.600

18–24

149.002.700

25–34

135.033.820

35–44

69.751.720

45–54

38.008.580

55–65

18.134.060

Grazie alle possibilità di socializzazione e interazione con i nativi che questo social network of fre, possiamo considerarlo come uno strumento che

10

Per un quadro completo sui contesti di apprendimento/insegnamento dell’italiano si veda il volume di Diadori et al. (2009).

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può contribuire, se opportunamente utilizzato, a consolidare e migliorare la competenza linguistica degli apprendenti. Le potenzialità di Facebook, però, vanno ben oltre. Come emerge in Addolorato, infatti: attraverso la condivisione di post di testi, video, il linkaggio relativo a eventi o temi, si estendono potenzialmente le possibilità di familiarizzarsi con la lingua, la cultura, le strategie linguistiche, la frequenza d’uso di un termine, abbinate alla possibilità di ef fettuare una costante ricerca sul campo, che permette di poter conoscere, pure a distanza fisica, il gergo giovanile, il linguaggio politico, le ultime tendenze artisticosociali di un determinato gruppo umano accomunato da una lingua, da una determinata tradizione. (Addolorato 2009: 177)

In quest’ottica l’immagine condivisa su una bacheca può, ad esempio, rappresentare un input per la produzione scritta e/o orale, l’iscrizione a gruppi dedicati alla lingua italiana (es. il gruppo dell’Accademia della Crusca) può stimolare la rif lessione esplicita sul funzionamento della lingua e l’interazione con i nativi migliorare, più in generale, l’abilità di comprensione e produzione scritta e arricchire la competenza lessicale. Inoltre, le applicazioni possono essere selezionate in base al loro contenuto oppure facilmente create ad hoc per il proprio contesto classe: i quiz a scelta multipla, l’invio di immagini e le sfide rappresentano solo alcuni esempi di contenuti utilizzabili per l’apprendimento o il rinforzo linguistico.11 Facebook può quindi diventare una piattaforma per l’apprendimento linguistico: una sintesi delle diverse funzioni utilizzabili e della loro spendibilità didattica è sintetizzata in tab. 14.

11

Se prendiamo ad esempio ‘Italian Foods’, l’utente Facebook seleziona l’applicazione e sceglie, tra quelle proposte, un’immagine rappresentante un piatto tipico della cucina italiana. In seguito, seleziona l’utente al quale inviare l’immagine. Chi riceve l’immagine, visualizza sulla propria bacheca una richiesta per l’applicazione ‘Italian Foods’ e può accedere al contenuto. Le sfide sono invece quiz a scelta multipla realizzati, nella maggior parte dei casi, in Flash (software di animazione grafica di Adobe): si tratta dunque di pagine web più dinamiche, spesso con ef fetti sonori, che registrano il punteggio degli utenti e stilano una vera e propria classifica in base al punteggio ottenuto.

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Da Facebook a Ning per imparare l’italiano Tabella 14 Le funzioni di Facebook in ottica didattica Funzione

Spendibilità didattica

Aggiornamenti di stato

Scrivere brevi frasi e sintesi di testi.

Scrittura di note, posta interna

Scrivere testi di diversa lunghezza e di diversa tipologia, con possibilità di commento da parte dei compagni.

Chat

Scrivere brevi messaggi.

Condivisione di link e video

Comprendere testi scritti e orali.

Condivisione di immagini

Input per la produzione di testi scritti e orali.

Applicazioni

Attività di rinforzo e reimpiego di tipo morfosintattico, lessicale o culturale.

L’uso di uno strumento così dif fuso quale Facebook può dunque motivare gli studenti allo svolgimento di attività didattiche per l’apprendimento dell’italiano ma richiede una valutazione preventiva, da parte del docente, sulle applicazioni non nate con finalità espressamente didattiche, allo scopo di prevenire errori e scorrettezze. Il docente può costruire le proprie applicazioni basandosi sul sillabo proposto agli apprendenti e gli studenti stessi possono impegnarsi attivamente costruendo applicazioni volte al reimpiego delle strutture analizzate in classe o partecipare a sfide linguistiche, enfatizzando l’aspetto più ludico dell’apprendimento.12 La dif fusione degli smart phone e la possibilità di utilizzare Facebook direttamente dal telefonino grazie all’applicazione Facebook mobile, inoltre, lascia intravedere una spendibilità anche per quanto concerne l’apprendimento in contesto di mobilità.13 Tra le criticità nell’uso di Facebook per la didattica dell’italiano è da enumerare un aspetto innanzitutto educativo: è corretto che il docente apra il proprio profilo ai discenti (e viceversa) o è preferibile creare un profilo dedicato esclusivamente alle attività didattiche? Il ricorso alle applicazioni, inoltre, è

12

Sull’approccio ludico nella didattica delle lingue si veda, ad esempio, il volume di Caon et al. (2009). 13 Sul mobile learning si veda, ad esempio, il contributo di Kukulska-Hulme et al. (2008).

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diversamente recepito a seconda dell’età degli apprendenti e questo potrebbe comportare il non interesse da parte di alcune tipologie di apprendenti dell’italiano L2: uno studio di BliNQ Media () ha evidenziato che le applicazioni sono utilizzate soprattutto da coloro che hanno più di 31 anni; chi utilizza le bacheche per condividere messaggi, link, video e immagini, invece, usa meno le applicazioni e determinati tipi di applicazioni, quali gli invii di regalo, possono richiedere tempi di risposta dilatati (il 70 percento impiega ben 30 giorni). Considerate queste premesse, è possibile ipotizzare un impiego diversificato di Facebook in relazione alle diverse fasce di età coinvolte, riservando la produzione di brevi messaggi di status e di note, utili per la produzione scritta, a coloro che meno utilizzano le applicazioni, più orientate verso attività di rinforzo ortografico, grammaticale, lessicale e, più in generale, culturale. Un altro limite è rilevabile nella varietà stessa di lingua utilizzata in rete che, secondo D’Achille (2003), può presentare scorrettezze nell’uso degli accenti, refusi e ‘incidenti sintattici’, con una riduzione dei segni di punteggiatura. La varietà di lingua trasmessa, così definita da Sabatini (1982), trova nel Web 2.0 maggiori possibilità di realizzazione in quanto esso ha permesso agli utenti di diventare, allo stesso tempo, autori e fruitori della rete, generando grandi quantità di materiale linguistico non sempre controllabile dal punto di vista qualitativo.

4 I Social Network per l’Apprendimento/Insegnamento delle Lingue: Il Caso di Livemocha Parallelamente alla dif fusione dei più noti social network, quali Facebook, My Space e Netlog, negli ultimi anni si sono sviluppati diversi social network con finalità didattiche (Bedini 2009, Troncarelli 2010). Livemocha, Babbel, Busuu, My Happy Planet e Palabea rappresentano alcuni esempi di questa nuova modalità di apprendimento/insegnamento delle lingue, basata sulla collaborazione tra pari e su un apprendimento di tipo informale (tab. 15).

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Da Facebook a Ning per imparare l’italiano Tabella 15 I principali social network per l’apprendimento linguistico Nome e sito di riferimento

Lingue

Livemocha

Of fre corsi gratuiti/ a pagamento per l’apprendimento delle principali lingue straniere. Al corso multimediale si aggiunge il supporto degli utenti madrelingua.

Babbel

Of fre corsi a pagamento (con prova gratuita) di francese, inglese, italiano, spagnolo, svedese, tedesco. Al corso multimediale si aggiunge il supporto degli utenti madrelingua.

Busuu

Of fre corsi gratuiti per l’apprendimento di diverse lingue straniere e utilizza sistemi di comunicazione sincrona e asincrona.

My Happy Planet

Of fre corsi gratuiti per l’apprendimento di diverse lingue straniere con video e lezioni caricati dagli utenti.

Palabea

Of fre corsi gratuiti per l’apprendimento di diverse lingue straniere con documenti, video lezioni e podcast scaricabili realizzati dagli utenti stessi.

Livemocha è il primo social network nato espressamente per l’apprendimento linguistico; come descritto in Bedini (2009; Troncarelli 2010), si tratta di un sito che permette agli iscritti di creare connessioni con i parlanti nativi della lingua oggetto di studio. Durante la registrazione al social network, l’utente dichiara la propria madrelingua e le lingue che sta imparando: dopo il log in rivestirà quindi il ruolo di docente per la propria L1 e di apprendente per le lingue selezionate. Per quanto concerne l’of ferta formativa di italiano per stranieri, attualmente Livemocha contiene quattro corsi a pagamento: ‘italiano per principianti’, che mette l’accento sull’apprendimento della grammatica di base, sul presentarsi e sulla ricezione/ produzione di semplici espressioni; ‘italiano intermedio’, che fornisce input più complessi e favorisce il consolidamento grammaticale e lessicale; ‘active Italian’, che è basato sullo sviluppo della conversazione attraverso la visione

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di video e l’interazione scritta/orale; ‘impara l’italiano per viaggiare’, che punta sulle situazioni comunicative tipiche dell’ambito turistico, con la possibilità di scaricare file audio e video da ascoltare in viaggio con il proprio dispositivo mobile. Se consideriamo il corso ‘italiano intermedio’, la prima lezione proposta ha come obiettivo grammaticale l’acquisizione del tempo passato (l’imperfetto del modo indicativo). La lezione si svolge secondo lo schema Impara> Revisione> Scrivi> Parla. La sezione ‘Impara’ presenta una serie di input testuali e iconici che servono a esprimere l’ora al presente e al passato, con possibilità di tradurre le frasi in lingua inglese per facilitare la comprensione. La sezione ‘Revisione’ presenta una selezione di attività di abbinamento a partire da input testuali o iconici e di frasi da riordinare, in modalità di autocorrezione. Si tratta dunque di classiche attività per l’autoapprendimento sulla base di esempi e ripetizioni, di matrice istruzionista14 e che si rifanno ad un modello di FAD di prima generazione (cfr. nota n. 2). Seguono le attività produttive delle sezioni ‘Scrivi’ e ‘Parla’ che rappresentano l’elemento innovativo di questo corso: in aggiunta alle esercitazioni, l’apprendente svolge attività di produzione scritta e orale che possono essere corrette dagli amici del social network ai quali sono inviate. La comunità di apprendimento tipica della terza generazione di FAD (cfr. nota n. 2) viene in questo caso rappresentata non da coloro che si sono iscritti allo stesso corso di lingua italiana, come può accadere in un corso universitario a distanza, ma da coloro che sono entrati a far parte della comunità virtuale di Livemocha dichiarando di avere come madrelingua proprio l’italiano. Il nativo italiano si trova quindi a operare in qualità di esperto linguistico, fornendo feedback scritti oppure orali sulla base dei ‘suggerimenti per buone recensioni’ fornite dai creatori del social network: l’esaustività dei commenti, l’uso di colori e stili diversi per fornire 14 Con Istruzionismo si fa riferimento alle cosiddette ‘macchine per imparare’, ossia a sistemi di autoapprendimento basati sulle teorie skinneriane, che prevedevano la somministrazione di stimoli, in una situazione altamente strutturata e graduale rispetto ai contenuti; l’errore, considerato come elemento negativo, veniva rilevato immediatamente e opportunamente corretto attraverso attività di rinforzo. Per approfondimenti si veda Fratter (2004).


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le correzioni e l’insegnamento attraverso esempi concreti sono alla base delle buone pratiche di insegnamento in Livemocha. Una risorsa di questo tipo sembra rappresentare, a un’attenta analisi, una modalità di apprendimento informale che può essere af fiancata, nell’ottica del plurilinguismo, alla formalità e alla non formalità dei corsi erogati nelle istituzioni, nella scuola pubblica, nell’università e dall’associazionismo.15

5 Costruire un Social Network per la Propria Classe di Italiano L2: una Prima Sperimentazione di Ning La terza opzione alla quale il docente di italiano L2 può ricorrere per sfruttare le potenzialità delle reti sociali, create attraverso gli strumenti di social networking, è la costruzione di un social network chiuso da utilizzare nel proprio contesto classe: ‘In a hosted do-it-yourself network […] the user selects a theme as well as the features they’d like to incorporate from among those avalaible and arranges them on the page according to their preference’ (Berger, Texler 2010: 166). Si tratta dunque di servizi che permettono, in maniera semplice e rapida, la creazione di social network ad hoc, gratuiti o a pagamento, che consentono agli apprendenti di partecipare a vere e proprie comunità virtuali di apprendimento. Ning, Elgg e Dolphin sono alcuni dei social software e dei social service che negli ultimi anni sono stati sperimentati in ambito educativo e didattico (Fini 2006, 2009), come sintetizzato in

15

Quando parliamo di ‘apprendimento formale’ facciamo riferimento all’apprendimento che avviene all’interno di contesti strutturati e organizzati (ad es. a scuola e nella formazione aziendale) e rilascia certificazioni uf ficiali (diplomi, qualifiche, certificati); con ‘apprendimento non formale’ intendiamo invece ciò che accade al di fuori delle principali agenzie formative e senza il rilascio di certificazioni uf ficiali (es. nell’ambito delle associazioni giovanili e dell’apprendistato). Entrambi sono intenzionali mentre nel caso dell’ ‘apprendimento informale’ non abbiamo intenzionalità ma piuttosto siamo in presenza di un apprendimento esperienziale, incidentale e non strutturato. Per approfondimenti si veda Cross (2006).

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tab. 16. A seconda del servizio scelto, è possibile condividere file (immagini, video, documenti di testo), link e scambiare messaggi pubblici (più brevi come nel caso degli indicatori di status, più lunghi come nel caso dei blog) o privati (messaggi di posta interni al sistema) e personalizzare la grafica.16 Tabella 16 I principali social software e social service Nome e sito di riferimento

Caratteristiche

Ning

Servizio web, personalizzabile in quanto a funzionalità e contenuti, è a pagamento con tarif fazioni diverse a seconda delle opzioni inserite. Non richiede particolari competenze tecniche per l’attivazione e la gestione.

Elgg

Software open source installabile su server, è gratuito e richiede maggiori competenze tecniche per l’installazione e la personalizzazione.

Dolphin

Software a metà tra open source e soluzione commerciale, è a pagamento (con versione base gratuita).

Twiducate

Servizio web creato per l’uso in ambito scolastico, è di facile uso ed è gratuito.

SocialGO

Servizio web, è di facile uso ma a pagamento (con versione base gratuita).

Ning, in particolare, è una risorsa veloce e facile da utilizzare. Come riportato in Berger e Texler (2010), il docente si registra e costruisce il proprio social network in pochi click, selezionando le risorse e le funzioni che vuole includere: i forum possono essere utilizzati per favorire il confronto e la discussione tra i discenti; le immagini e i video possono rappresentare testi input per unità di lavoro online, mentre i box testuali e i link a pagine 16

Sull’uso di social network creati ad hoc per il proprio contesto classe si vedano i contributi di Allegra (2010), Vagnozzi (2010) e Marcelli (2010).


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web possono arricchire il social network dei contenuti oggetto di studio. Il maggior vantaggio nel creare un social network ad hoc è il controllo che il docente può avere sui contenuti e sui membri che possono accedere, in funzione della disciplina insegnata e degli obiettivi che nel percorso didattico egli intende raggiungere. Nell’ambito del tutorato didattico di lingua italiana per stranieri,17 attivato in presenza nell’A.A. 2009–2010 presso la Facoltà di Lingue e letterature straniere dell’Università degli Studi di Genova, è stato proposto ai corsisti l’uso del social network ‘Italiano per cinesi’ () realizzato con Ning. La home presenta tre colonne: a sinistra sono visualizzate le attività recenti (pubblicazione di video, messaggi di status, amicizie), al centro sono consultabili il blog e il file box mentre a destra sono invece riportate le informazioni personali, le fotografie e i video. Il tutorato didattico ha previsto quattordici ore in presenza, svolte presso il laboratorio informatico e distribuite su sette incontri da due ore per circa due mesi di attività ed ha coinvolto un totale di ventisei studenti, di livello compreso tra il B1 e il C1 del Quadro Comune Europeo di Riferimento (Consiglio d’Europa 2002). Trattandosi di attività di potenziamento e/ o recupero degli studenti iscritti a diversi anni e a diversi corsi di laurea, il gruppo classe era disomogeneo in quanto a competenze in ingresso. Si è quindi preferito svolgere la fase di motivazione, di comprensione globale e di produzione orale in plenum, mentre le attività di approfondimento, rinforzo grammaticale e produzione scritta sono state erogate on line, rispettando i tempi di svolgimento di ogni studente e permettendo il completamento delle attività al di fuori dell’orario di lezione. Per le attività di approfondimento gli studenti hanno potuto riascoltare o rileggere i testi input inseriti in Ning; per il rinforzo grammaticale sono stati inseriti dei link agli esercizi multimediali con auto-correzione reperiti in rete; per la produzione scritta, infine, sono state utilizzate domande aperte postate sul 17

Il tutorato didattico prevede la selezione di studenti iscritti alle lauree specialistiche o alle scuole di dottorato di ricerca per la realizzazione di attività di tutorato e attività didattico/integrative, nonché di attività propedeutiche e di recupero per gli studenti delle diverse facoltà. Fonte: .

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blog. Il file box ha avuto la funzione di raccolta di documenti testuali (date e orari degli incontri, testi da leggere, ecc.) mentre il sistema di messaggistica interna al social network ha sostituito l’uso della posta elettronica tradizionale. L’uso di ‘Italiano per cinesi’ ha quindi previsto la comunicazione sul blog (sono presenti cinquantacinque messaggi, trentadue del docente e ventitré degli studenti) e la condivisione di risorse (link a risorse on line, condivisione di immagini, video e file di testo) al pari di una piattaforma e-learning. Tra i vantaggi rilevati nell’uso di questo strumento, da un punto di vista prettamente tecnico è emersa la possibilità, da parte del docente, di decidere la posizione dei diversi elementi nella home e di personalizzare la grafica; inoltre, non è stato necessario svolgere alcun tipo di formazione ai discenti in quanto, vista la semplicità d’uso, nell’arco della prima lezione essi hanno esplorato i contenuti e d ef fettuato la navigazione senza particolari dif ficoltà. I discenti stessi, inoltre, possono inserire nuovi messaggi sul blog, link, immagini e video.18 Lo svantaggio maggiore sta nell’impossibilità di ottenere un tracciamento di tutte le attività svolte dai discenti: i risultati degli esercizi reperiti on line non possono essere registrati e per verificare le attività svolte dagli studenti è necessario analizzare pagina per pagina il social network in maniera più approfondita.19 Nell’A.A. 2010–2011 la sperimentazione di Ning è proseguita nell’ambito di un corso di lingua italiana di livello B2 rivolto a studenti Erasmus ospiti dell’ateneo genovese: l’iscrizione a un social network di classe () è stata proposta a venti studenti di diversa 18

19

Vista la brevità e la tipologia di intervento non è stato possibile rilevare l’esito delle attività didattiche in maniera sistematica. Riportiamo di seguito, a titolo esemplificativo e senza correzioni di alcun tipo, un messaggio di una studentessa postato a chiusura del percorso: ‘Usiamo questo spazio da 2 mesi, secondo me, è molto interessante e utile per noi Io studio l’italiano da 1 anno, quindi è importante approfondire il mio italiano. Qua possiamo condivedere qualche video. possiamo scrivere i nostri pensieri, possiamo fare gli esercizi, ecc. A me piace molto! Se è possibile, speriamo di continuare a usarlo’. In commercio esistono però diversi tipi di software che possono permettere di visualizzare gli aspetti più tipici delle interazioni in ambienti virtuali di questa tipologia: il software NetMiner3, ad esempio, rappresenta graficamente, attraverso un sociogramma, i contatti instauranti tra i partecipanti a un social network; per approfondimenti si vedano Fini e Cigognini (2009).


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provenienza e madrelingua, quattordici dei quali hanno accettato l’iscrizione. A dif ferenza del caso precedente, il social network è stato proposto come ambiente di apprendimento virtuale da utilizzare esclusivamente al di fuori delle attività didattiche in presenza. In linea con gli obiettivi della Commissione delle Comunità Europee (2001), abbiamo scelto l’af fiancamento di una modalità di apprendimento informale all’apprendimento di tipo formale integrando la formazione universitaria in presenza con l’interazione e la socializzazione all’interno di un social network. A una prima analisi, rimanendo invariati gli strumenti (blog, video, immagini, link, file di testo) con l’aggiunta della possibilità di svolgere quiz prodotti dal docente direttamente all’interno del sistema, è emerso che una buona percentuale di studenti iscritti (più della metà) ricopre il ruolo di lurker: molti studenti leggono i contributi altrui, rimanendo in secondo piano, pochi studenti scrivono, commentano e condividono.20 Rispetto all’uso tradizionale di social network quali Facebook e MySpace, in questo caso non è stato mai utilizzato l’indicatore di status, mentre prevalgono l’invio di messaggi privati e la condivisione di video, di immagini e di testi. Il test di fine corso, basato sulla competenza grammaticale e sulla conoscenza esplicita di alcuni elementi di cultura italiana, ha messo in evidenza una correlazione positiva tra l’iscrizione al social network e i risultati raggiunti: la votazione media riportata nella prova grammaticale, nella prova culturale e nell’intera prova è più alta nel caso di coloro che hanno accettato l’iscrizione, come sintetizzato nella tabella seguente (tab. 17).

20 Lurker significa letteralmente ‘persona che osserva’ ed è un termine derivante dalla netiquette. La definizione riportata in Wikipedia () mette in luce come questo lemma non abbia una connotazione negativa: sarebbe la stessa netiquette a richiedere, quando iscritti a un forum, una mailing list, un blog ecc., un periodo di osservazione prima di iniziare a scrivere allo scopo di comprendere tematiche e modalità di interazione. A questo proposito Nielsen (2006) ha elaborato la ‘teoria 1–9–90’ secondo la quale nella maggior parte delle comunità si ha un 1 percento di utenti attivi e produttivi, un 9 percento di utenti occasionali e il 90 percento di fruitori passivi.

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Emanuela Cotroneo Tabella 17 Punteggio medio riportato dai corsisti Ambito

Punteggio medio iscritti social network

Punteggio medio non iscritti social network

Competenza morfosintattica

83/100

71/100

Conoscenze culturali

45/100

33/100

Complessivo

80/100

69/100

Analizzando i risultati nel dettaglio, possiamo notare che sia nel caso della prova grammaticale sia nel caso di quella culturale il punteggio medio ottenuto da chi si è iscritto al social network ha uno scarto di almeno 10/100 rispetto a chi non si è iscritto: i non iscritti hanno rispettivamente ottenuto 71/100 e 33/100, gli iscritti 83/100 e 45/100 per un punteggio medio complessivo di 69/100 e 80/100. Sebbene i risultati di coloro che si sono iscritti al social network di classe, siano essi lurker o utenti attivi, siano migliori rispetto a coloro i quali non hanno accettato l’iscrizione, non possiamo attribuire con certezza la ragione di tale successo allo strumento usato: gli iscritti potrebbero infatti essere stati i più motivati o ancora i più predisposti all’acquisizione linguistica. È indubbio, però, che le nuove tecnologie, i software, gli strumenti di interazione sincrona e asincrona, le attività in rete, motivino gli studenti e favoriscano, in alcuni casi, l’interazione tra docente e discente e tra i discenti stessi, aumentando la quantità di input fornito e provocando, più in generale, ricadute didattiche positive (Mezzadri 2001). Per promuovere e giustificare l’uso di social network come ambienti di apprendimento linguistico digitale sarà quindi necessario, in futuro, testarne l’ef ficacia monitorando la competenza in ingresso e in uscita, sulla base di alcuni elementi isolati e facilmente controllabili e, ove possibile, confrontando i risultati ottenuti con studenti di pari livello che abbiano utilizzato diversi ambienti di apprendimento digitale (es. piattaforme tradizionali) o nessuno di essi.


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6 Conclusioni Le tecnologie per la didattica rappresentano un prezioso alleato nella progettazione e nell’erogazione di percorsi didattici volti all’acquisizione linguistica: in tempi più recenti, le piattaforme e-learning hanno permesso la frequenza, da parte di un sempre maggior numero di apprendenti, di corsi di lingua italiana on line, realizzati in modalità blended o interamente a distanza. Il passaggio dal web al web 2.0 e dall’e-learning all’e-learning 2.0 ha aperto nuovi scenari di apprendimento, mettendo a disposizione degli utenti risorse per la condivisione e la collaborazione online, attraverso una nuova concezione della rete come piattaforma ‘aperta’. Tra gli strumenti tipici del web 2.0, grazie alla loro dif fusione in termini spaziali ed anagrafici, i social network sembrano essere una risorsa da considerare nella fase di programmazione didattica e da sperimentare, sia per la loro facilità d’uso, sia per le diverse attività che permettono di realizzare online. Facebook, in particolare, si presta all’utilizzo per la didattica dell’italiano a stranieri attraverso la pratica linguistica, il contatto con i nativi e l’utilizzo di funzioni quali i messaggi di status, le note, la condivisione di link, immagini e video, anche in un’ottica di apprendimento in mobilità. Se la gestione di un profilo di Facebook con finalità didattiche può entrare in conf litto con un uso privato dello stesso, sollevando questioni di tipo educativo prima ancora che didattiche, i docenti possono orientare i propri discenti verso l’uso di social network nati espressamente per l’apprendimento linguistico e orientati alla collaborazione tra pari e all’apprendimento informale. Livemocha, il caso descritto, presenta infatti una serie di attività per l’autoapprendimento, con il vantaggio di poter usufruire di amici madrelingua disponibili a svolgere attività di verifica e controllo sulle produzioni scritte e orali degli utenti. Un’ulteriore alternativa è rappresentata dai web service, gratuiti o a pagamento, che permettono di costruire social network chiusi, da utilizzare nel proprio contesto classe e per le proprie finalità didattiche, senza la necessità di particolari competenze informatiche da parte di chi progetta il corso. La prima sperimentazione svolta con Ning in contesto universitario ha messo in evidenza che il ricorso a uno spazio di apprendimento digitale di questa tipologia, per la formazione blended

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o a distanza, of fre ai docenti la possibilità di mettere in relazione i propri studenti in un contesto simile a quello di Facebook, instaurando relazioni tra i membri e favorendo il contatto con materiale testuale, audio e video in lingua italiana, la produzione e la pratica linguistica, malgrado la percentuale di lurker presente lasci intravedere la necessità di motivare maggiormente alla partecipazione. Il docente e i discenti possono svolgere funzioni simili a quelle del noto social network, con il vantaggio di mettere il focus sui contenuti oggetto di studio. Come suggerito nel volume di Fini e Cigognini (2009), l’apertura di un social network chiuso verso la comunità di pratica linguistica che nasce on line spontaneamente, a conclusione di un percorso formativo, potrebbe rappresentare l’evoluzione di un corso online verso l’apprendimento continuo e permanente, grazie al contributo dei pari: si creerebbe quindi un social network tematico, aperto a infinite amicizie e dedicato all’italiano L2, nel quale apprendenti e docenti di diversi paesi possano interagire, condividendo risorse e materiali, nell’impresa comune di apprendere e insegnare una lingua e cultura.21

Bibliografia Allegra, C. (2010). ‘Usare un Social Learning Enviroment a scuola: un approccio integrato per l’apprendimento. Esame di un caso’. In Andronico, A., Labella, A. e Patini F. (eds), Atti del Convegno Didamatica 2010, Roma: Università La Sapienza, consultato il 2 dicembre 2011.

21

Un esempio di social network con finalità didattiche e aperto alle comunità di pratica della rete è L20 : realizzato dall’Università per Stranieri di Perugia, raccoglie unità minime di apprendimento di lingua italiana per stranieri, o learning objects, basate su video, audio, immagini o testi scritti caricate e commentate dagli utenti. Destinatari del social network sono i docenti, oltre che i discenti, di italiano L2/LS.


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Addolorato, A. (2009). ‘Facebook Come Piattaforma di Autoformazione Linguistica’. In Borgato, R., Capelli, F. e Ferraresi M. (eds), Facebook Come. Le Nuove Relazioni Virtuali, 176–81. Milano: Franco Angeli. Ardizzone, P. e Rivoltella, P.C. (eds) (2008). Media e Tecnologie per la Didattica. Roma: Vita e Pensiero. Bedini, S. (2011). ‘Livemocha: un Social Network per l’Apprendimento-Insegnamento delle Lingue’, Bollettino Itals, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. Berger, P. e Texler, S. (eds) (2010). Choosing Web 2.0 Tools for Learning and Teaching in a Digital World. Portland: Book News. Bonaiuti, G. (2006). E-learning 2.0 Il Futuro dell’Spprendimento in Rete, Tra Formale e Informale. Trento: Erickson. Calvani, A. (2004). Che cos’è la Tecnologia dell’Educazione. Roma: Carocci Editore. Caon, F. e Rutka, S. (2003). La lingua in gioco. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni. Commissione delle Comunità Europee (2011). ‘Realizzare uno Spazio Europeo dell’Apprendimento Permanente’, Comunicazione della Commissione, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. Consiglio d’Europa (2002). Quadro Comune Europeo di Riferimento per le Lingue. Apprendimento Insegnamento Valutazione. Firenze: La Nuova Italia. Cross, J. (2006). ‘Informal Learning for Free-range Learners’, Internet Time Group LLC, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. D’Achille, P. (2003). L’italiano contemporaneo. Bologna: Il Mulino. Diadori, P., Palermo, M. e Troncarelli, D. (2009). Manuale di didattica dell’italiano L2. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni. Downes, S. (2011). ‘E-learning 2.0’, eLearn Magazine, http://www.elearnmag.org/ subpage.cfm?section=articlesandarticle=29–1> consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. Fini, A. (2006). ‘Social Networking’. In Giovanni Bonaiuti, 183–7. Trento: Erickson. Fini, A. (2009). ‘Ambienti Tecnologici per il Social Networking’. In Fini, A. e Cigognini, M.E. 157–64. Gardiolo: Erickson. Fini, A. e Cigognini, M.E. (2009). Web 2.0 e Social Networking. Nuovi Paradigmi per la Formazione. Gardiolo: Erickson. Fratter, I. (2004). Tecnologie per l’Insegnamento delle Lingue. Roma: Carocci. Guerrini, F. (2010). Facebook Reloaded. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli Editore. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Sharples, M., Milrad, M., Arnedillo-Sánchez, I. e Vavoula, G. (2011). Innovazione Nel Mobile Learning. Una Prospettiva Europea Sulle Potenzialità Didattiche della Tecnologia Mobile per l’Apprendimento, TD, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011.

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Macrì, P. (2007). Editoria, E-learning e Multimedia. Genova: ECIG. Marcelli, M. (2010) ‘Blended Learning e Inverted Classroom in un Social Network’. In Alfio Andronico, Anna Labella e Franco Patini (eds), Atti del Convegno Didamatica 2010, Roma: Università La Sapienza, consultato il 2 dicembre 2011. Mezzadri M. (2001). La Frontiera Presente. Internet nella Didattica dell’Italiano. Perugia: Guerra. Nielsen, J. (2011). ‘Participation Inequality: Encouraging more Users to Contribute’, Alertbox, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. O’Reilly, T. (2011). ‘What is Web 2.0. Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software’, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. Poli, S. (2004). Il Filo di Arianna. Formazione a Distanza e Utilizzo delle Risorse Internet: un Punto di Vista ‘umanistico’. Bari: Schena Editore. Ranieri, M. (2005). E-learning: Modelli e Strategie Didattiche. Trento: Erickson. Romiszowski, A.J. (1974). Selection and Use of Instructional Media. Londra: Kogan Page. Sabatini, F. (1982). ‘La Dimensione del Parlato Negli Studi Linguistici’, Linguaggi, 1 (2), 5–7. Siemens, G. (2011). ‘Connectivism: a Learning Theory for the Digital Age’, ElearnSpace, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011. Torsani, S. (2009). La Didattica delle Lingue in Rete. Teoria, Pratica e Sviluppo. Bari: Schena Editore. Troncarelli, D. (2010). ‘Strategie e Risorse per l’Insegnamento Linguistico Online’. In Elisabetta Jafrancesco (ed.), Apprendere in Rete: Multimedialità e Insegnamento Linguistico. Atti del XVIII Convegno Nazionale ILSA Firenze, 21 novembre 2009, 9–22. Firenze: Le Monnier 2010. Vagnozzi, M. (2010). ‘Sostenere Sttraverso un Social Network le Attività Educative Rivolte agli Adolescenti’. In Andronico, A., Labella, A. e Patini, F. (eds), Atti del Convegno Didamatica 2010, Roma: Università La Sapienza, consultato il 2 dicembre 2011. Wasserman, S. e Faust, K. (eds) (1996). Social Network Analysis: Method and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Woodill, G. (2011). ‘Where is Learning in E-learning?’, consultato il 24 gennaio 2011.

Alessandra Giglio


1 Introduzione La Rete globale, il Web 2.0 e le nuove strumentazioni tecnologiche che permettono di essere costantemente online sembrano essere le avvisaglie di una rivoluzione culturale, sociologica e comunicativa a cui stiamo, più o meno consciamente, assistendo: tale rivoluzione è pari forse solamente a quanto successo ai tempi di Gutenberg e dell’avvento della stampa a caratteri mobili. Molteplici prodotti culturali, infatti, stanno mutando forma: il diario personale viene pubblicato e condiviso con più persone; la stessa letteratura cessa d’essere un atto intimo e personale per divenire collaborativa; il materiale di studio è sempre più spesso frutto del lavoro delle comunità di apprendimento. Inoltre, è oggigiorno sempre più importante essere in grado di comunicare in più modalità e in più lingue con gli attori sociali che assistono a questa rivoluzione socio-comunicativa. Il progetto ‘Racconto L2.0’ nasce proprio alla luce di queste considerazioni: nell’ambito dell’insegnamento della lingua italiana a studenti stranieri, si è pensato infatti di creare un ponte, un fruttuoso collegamento tra l’esercizio della produzione scritta creativa e le tecnologie del Web 2.0. Il blog, strumento di estrema facilità d’uso e di dif fusione capillare tra i giovani, diventa un luogo virtuale che permette di cimentarsi nella scrittura creativa di un racconto di fantasia, con una serie di regole definite a priori dall’insegnante, in modo da rispettare gli obiettivi didattici preposti; il risultato verrà poi valutato dalla comunità virtuale che decreterà, così, la produzione vincente.

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Il presente intervento ha lo scopo, quindi, di illustrare il progetto e le sue specifiche tecniche e didattiche, analizzando anche i risultati derivanti dalle prime sperimentazioni e sintetizzando alcune rif lessioni per lo sviluppo futuro.

2 Da Gutenberg a Winer: la Rivoluzione della Stampa a Caratteri Mobili Come la Rivoluzione del Blog? Nel 1455 Johann Gutenberg, un orafo tedesco che si occupava di coniare monete, ultimò la riproduzione della prima Bibbia realizzata con la nuova tecnica della stampa a caratteri mobili, ispirata nella sua creazione al torchio da vino delle uve renane. Quest’invenzione sola ha segnato l’inizio di una nuova era, che ha portato ad una concezione più privata del piacere intimo della lettura, ma anche ad una sua maggiore universalità, dato che ha permesso la dif fusione della cultura a più ampio raggio; tuttavia, essa ha anche determinato la fine di un’altra era, basata sulla cultura della memoria, della condivisione, della ripetizione: [L]’invenzione della stampa […] nella seconda metà del Quattrocento permise l’immediata riproducibilità di testi e immagini e nel contempo la loro dif fusione a costi ragionevoli. Per capirne l’importanza e gli ef fetti sulla società, basti ricordare che forse le tre grandi rivoluzioni […] che fra il XV e il XVII secolo hanno creato il mondo moderno, e cioè il Rinascimento, la Riforma protestante e la rivoluzione scientifica, non sarebbero state certamente possibili senza di essa. (Petrucco, De Rossi 2009: 10)

Nel 1969, molti secoli più tardi, nasce Internet, o meglio il prototipo di ciò che diventerà una rete di computer contemporaneamente collegati tra loro che scambiano dati e informazioni in tempo reale. Nel 1993, quando la rete di Internet è già ben sviluppata tra gli ingegneri informatici, nasce il primo browser Mosaic, che permetterà la navigazione in Rete degli utenti privati. Nel 1997, Dave Winer realizza un software che permette la creazione del primo blog personale; qualche mese più tardi, Jorn Barger sarà


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il primo blogger della storia, pubblicando su Internet i risultati delle sue battute di caccia. Anche in questo caso si assiste alla fine di un’era, nata con Gutenberg e basata sull’oligarchia dell’informazione, sul potere dell’editore e sulla passività del lettore; Winer segna l’inizio di un’altra era, che vivrà di costruttivismo sociale, collaboratività del sapere e democratizzazione dell’informazione (Poli 2004). In definitiva, assistiamo quindi al ‘famoso passaggio da quella che McLuhan […] ha definito la “galassia Gutenberg” (la stampa) alla “galassia Marconi”, ovvero ai media come li conosciamo in sostanza oggi’ giacché oggi ‘i media possono essere considerati veri e propri strumenti di elaborazione culturale che hanno come fine la costruzione condivisa e collettiva della realtà’ (Petrucco, De Rossi 2009: 10).

3 Didattica 2.0: il Blog sui Banchi di Scuola Sebbene il blog, originariamente chiamato ‘web-log’, ovvero ‘diario di rete’ – dal parallelismo nautico spesso utilizzato nella terminologia riguardante Internet –, sia nato inizialmente come collettore delle notizie importanti della giornata (What’s new, uno dei primi blog esistenti, era estremamente popolare durante i primi anni Novanta), e si sia poi sviluppato, già dal 1999, come spazio virtuale in cui inserire i propri pensieri personali sotto forma di diario, da alcuni anni esso è entrato nella pratica didattica e nelle classi di scuole di ogni ordine e grado. La prima iniziativa di ‘educational blog’ risale al 2001 grazie all’esperienza di Peter Ford (Friso 2009), che crea il primo esemplare di blog di classe. Il progetto di Ford si articola in tre fasi: inizialmente, il blog è semplice contenitore di informazioni della (e sulla) classe; successivamente, esso si evolve e diventa il luogo virtuale di incontro di una comunità in evoluzione; infine, nella terza fase, il blog diventa perno focale di detta comunità, che gravita attorno ad esso. Il progetto di Ford ha riscosso subito molto successo: tale esito positivo ha spinto diversi docenti a ripetere una simile esperienza nel proprio contesto scolastico.

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Significativa, qualche tempo più tardi, è l’esperienza di Will Richardson e Anne Davis: entrambi i docenti, di scuole e classi molto dif ferenti, oltre che distanti geograficamente, creano un proprio blog di classe. La novità consiste nella interconnessione dei due blog e quindi, di fatto, nella costituzione della prima rete di blog della storia: si approda così al primo blogging collaborativo (Friso 2009). Da queste positive esperienze, nascono allora delle reti e comunità di blog utilizzati nel campo dell’educazione che permettono di mettere in contatto diverse realtà scolastiche e diversi ambiti educativi in tutto il mondo, diventando spesso comunità di pratica. Per ciò che concerne l’Italia, le reti di edubloggers maggiormente rinomate sono Edublog.it,1 Blogdidattici,2 BlogER3 (Friso 2009). Le valenze didattiche del blog come strumento di classe sono essenzialmente legate alla sua comunicatività (Friso 2009): esso, infatti, permette di ampliare i canali comunicativi relativi all’apprendimento e alla sperimentazione; contribuisce a migliorare la capacità di organizzazione e documentazione del blogger – sia esso il docente o lo studente, supportato dall’attività di scaf folding4 del docente; aumenta il coinvolgimento della classe nelle lezioni e la motivazione degli studenti; stimola la capacità di valutazione e di rif lessione sui contenuti appresi e sui processi messi in atto. Inoltre, il blog ha alcune caratteristiche intrinseche che lo elevano a strumento ottimale nella didattica, dato che esso è: – generalmente facile nell’utilizzo, grazie a dei gestori di contenuti appositamente creati che ne permettono una fruizione semplice ed ef ficace; – collaborativo, ovvero è possibile coinvolgere diversi utenti sia nella progettazione, sia nella scrittura vera e propria del blog; – multimediale, quindi è possibile ragionare su dif ferenti tipologie di input iniziale, siano esse audio, video o testuali (Banzato 2006). 1

. L’ultimo accesso a questo e a tutti gli altri siti citati è avvenuto il 18 luglio 2011. 2 . 3 . 4 Ovvero, ricoprire un ruolo di facilitatore, di impalcatura, di sostegno (Fratter 2004).


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Tuttavia, perché lo strumento educativo ‘blog’ sia ef ficace, è necessario che alcune precondizioni imprescindibili siano soddisfatte: essendo questo un sussidio della comunicazione didattica, sarà necessario utilizzare un orientamento pedagogico costruttivista5 che ponga il discente al centro del mondo di relazioni e comunicazioni con il quale il blog si interfaccia. In altre parole, è necessario ‘un approccio pedagogico di tipo socio-cognitivo, in quanto le competenze di carattere sociale e cognitivo-testuale rivestono un’importanza fondamentale nella didattica della scrittura’ (Mizza, O’Toole 2007). In questo modo, l’apprendimento avverrà tramite le interazioni sociali del discente stesso: ‘learning is conceived as a constructive activity, only made possible through social interactions aimed at collaboration’ (Ligorio, Talamo, Pontecorvo 2005: 360). Inoltre, sfruttando al meglio le potenzialità del mezzo, lo studente vedrà stimolate le proprie capacità di know what (ovvero di contenuti, di scambio con l’insegnante, di scambio con la comunità della blogosfera in genere), di know how (ovvero potenzierà le abilità di lettura e scrittura, di ricerca delle informazioni, di comunicazione, di padronanza del mezzo informatico) e di know why (ovvero, il discente tenderà ad essere responsabile, rif lessivo, autonomo, espressivo, collaborativo) (Friso 2009).

4 Racconto L2.0: un Progetto di Blog Competitivo per l’Esercizio dell’Abilità di Produzione Scritta Come già visto, il blog nella didattica è utilizzato da tempo e con buoni risultati (Friso 2009), soprattutto per ciò che riguarda la condivisione di risorse ed esperienze, lo sviluppo di abilità informatiche e di competenze relazionali, cooperative e sociali oggi assolutamente fondamentali, nonché 5

Come già teorizzava Piaget prima, e Vygotskji poi: l’educazione, infatti, deve essere basata sull’interazione con l’ambiente: lo studente individua nell’ambiente gli aspetti che per lui sono di maggior interesse e li assimila in strutture pre-organizzate nel suo sistema conoscitivo, talvolta variando lo stesso sistema per rendere possibile l’assimilazione.

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al potenziamento di rapporti e regole sociali che, sebbene si esercitino in un luogo virtuale, trovano applicazione anche nel mondo reale. Tuttavia, non si trovano molte esperienze di blog come reale strumento didattico alla stregua di un eserciziario o di un’attività in classe: il blog, al contrario, è spesse volte visto come un utilissimo strumento di corollario e di appoggio, ma non viene incentrata su di esso la didattica per, ad esempio, il potenziamento di una particolare abilità linguistica o di una struttura comunicativa, soprattutto per ciò che riguarda la pratica didattica del sistema d’istruzione italiano.6 Da queste premesse, si origina il progetto di ‘Racconto L2.0’,7 che nasce come controparte didattica di un esperimento, di tutt’altra natura e specie, di scrittura sociale online. L’ispirazione arriva infatti da perFiducia 2.0,8 uno spazio virtuale della banca Intesa San Paolo che ha coinvolto 3291 utenti della blogosfera e ha dato loro la possibilità di scrivere una propria storia a puntate. Gli utenti, di fatto, gareggiavano tra loro: al termine dell’esperimento lo staf f di perFiducia 2.0 ha scelto a proprio insindacabile giudizio – ma tenendo conto dei pareri degli oltre diciottomila lettori virtuali votanti – quali fossero le tre storie maggiormente meritevoli di vittoria. Dalla fantasia dei tre improvvisati scrittori sono nati tre cortometraggi, supervisionati da registi del calibro di Gabriele Salvatores, Ermanno Olmi e Paolo Sorrentino. La peculiarità dell’esperimento, e cioè la scrittura creativa individuale di una storia che però viene votata paragrafo dopo paragrafo da un numero di lettori potenzialmente infinito, ha spontaneamente condotto ad una rif lessione didattica sull’applicabilità del format in classe: molte sono infatti

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In Rete si possono trovare, in lingua inglese, alcuni interessanti progetti di scrittura condivisa online, come Protagonize , Novlet e youNovel . Tuttavia, tali progetti non sembrano avere un intento prettamente scolastico o didattico; sono, più verosimilmente, progetti di scrittura condivisa scissi da un contesto, e da un progetto, educativo. 7 . È possibile visionare una videoguida dello strumento fruibile all’indirizzo . 8 .


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le caratteristiche che avrebbero avuto impatto positivo sulla didattica tradizionale di una lingua straniera – e, nel caso specifico, della lingua italiana L2. In primo luogo, la tipologia di compito assegnato prevede una buona dose di creatività e inventiva: già Rossiter ricordava che ‘(t)he learner involvement factor is also related to the power of stories to stimulate empathic response’ (Rossiter 2005); in ambito didattico, quindi, un progetto del genere può aiutare a stimolare la fantasia dello studente nel ‘sapere cosa scrivere’ in una composizione assegnata. Anche la motivazione9 dello studente può venire positivamente stimolata da questo tipo di attività: lo studente, infatti, oltre ad essere attratto dal fascino di sapere che verrà letto, potenzialmente, da infiniti lettori sul web,10 utilizzerà un sistema innovativo e ludico che spezzerà la routine della didattica quotidiana proponendo un compito diverso nella forma ma non nei contenuti – in fondo, sempre di scrivere si tratta.11 Educativo è inoltre l’uso didattico che può essere fatto di Internet, in opposizione al classico compito scritto con carta e penna: sebbene in ogni classe tradizionale sia presente un dizionario della lingua studiata, molto spesso questo non viene consultato, per pigrizia o per indisponibilità – il 9 10

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Intesa come fattore intrinseco e fondamentale nel processo di apprendiemnto di una lingua straniera, come propulsore dell’apprendimento, che si origina per soddisfare le necessità dell’apprendente (Schütz 2003). ‘Blogs can be used to expand course activities beyond the four walls of the classroom, so students are writing for a worldwide audience instead of only for classmates and the instructor. Student motivation may increase when their writing can be read by thousands instead of a handful’ (Thompson 2007: 3). Una delle maggiori dif ficoltà lamentate spesso dagli insegnanti delle scuole è che, in alcuni casi, si registra un decremento sensibile e costante nel livello di partecipazione e coinvolgimento dello studente nella lezione. Lo studente, dal canto suo, non sof fre cronicamente di carenza di attenzione ma, come ricorda Prensky (2006), semplicemente spesso egli decide di non ascoltare, di non applicarsi nello studio della materia. Questo accade perché lo studente, molto spesso, è scoraggiato nell’apprendimento formale a causa del poco interesse e della scarsa motivazione che gli viene indotta nello studio. L’edutainment, ovvero l’apprendimento tramite il divertimento, potrebbe essere la soluzione al problema: tramite tecniche e attività di didattica ludica, infatti, lo studente ritroverebbe la propria motivazione nella materia sperimentando l’apprendimento del sapere in nuove forme e modalità.

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dizionario è uno solo, è magari datato, e spesso è addirittura tenuto nella biblioteca scolastica. Con la scrittura su Internet, invece, lo studente dispone di una serie di strumenti e ausili che vanno ben al di là del semplice dizionario: correttori ortografici e sintattici, dizionari mono e multilingue, risorse lessicali e sinonimiche, corpora di testi e traduttori automatici. Lo studente dispone, insomma, di un astuccio virtuale del narratore ben fornito. Per ciò che riguarda il contenuto testuale, è opportuno forse ricordare la ‘frammentazione’ del compito assegnato: lo scrittore, infatti, scrive la propria storia non in modalità sequenziale, bensì ‘a puntate’, ovvero in funzione di alcune carte da gioco, che arricchiscono la storia di dettagli e la riempiono di colpi di scena e imprevisti.12 Pertanto, in terreno didattico, questo permetterebbe di trasferire nella pratica ciò che viene trasmesso in modo frammentato nella teoria: la tipologia testuale del racconto non si insegna forse, infatti, dividendo la storia in sequenze principali, analizzandone protagonisti e antagonisti, e ricordando agli studenti la ‘regola delle Wh-questions’?13 Infine, aspetto non da sottovalutarsi è la socialità alla base del sistema: la rete di utenti, che sono al contempo scrittori della propria storia ma anche lettori e giudici delle storie e delle produzioni altrui, è un forte catalizzatore di motivazione e interesse. La competitività, alla base dell’elemento sociale di questo esperimento, muove essa stessa il coinvolgimento e la creatività dell’utente. La ricaduta didattica di questo aspetto è fondamentale: lo studente, infatti, si confronterebbe con revisioni e idee direttamente suggerite

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Come la frammentazione ipertestuale che i discenti, ormai ‘nativi digitali’ come già sosteneva Prensky – ‘“native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet’ (Prensky 2001: 1) – sperimentano ogni giorno in Rete, in televisione, nei videogiochi, ecc… ‘Secondo il modello retorico di una argomentazione, la verifica della completezza dell’esposizione (expositio) di un documento può essere basarsi su un insieme di loci. Questi loci o argumenta sono stati introdotti da Cicerone nel De Inventione e ridefiniti nei trattati medievali. A partire dalla fine degli anni 40, una forma semplificata di queste proprietà si è dif fusa nell’ambito del giornalismo come regola delle ‘5 whquestions: who, what, why, when, where’ (Mich, Franch 2000: 4).


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dai suoi colleghi di avventura,14 alleati per alcuni versi ma antagonisti per altri; tale tensione positiva genererebbe motivazione e partecipazione attiva dello studente, scatenando di fatto un circolo virtuoso tra i vari partecipanti al progetto.15 Pertanto, da queste rif lessioni e considerazioni si origina l’idea di ‘Racconto L2.0’: uno strumento di semplice utilizzo, dalla grafica accattivante, con una spiccata dimensione sociale ‘alla Facebook’ e con un taglio vagamente competitivo come nota di fondo.

5 Racconto L2.0: Che Cos’è ‘Racconto L2.0’ è un progetto che nasce dal bisogno di esercitare lo sviluppo dell’abilità di produzione scritta degli studenti di un corso annuale di lingua italiana per stranieri che prevedeva un esame scritto finale. In quel particolare frangente, due erano le necessità didattiche prevalenti degli studenti della classe: far esercitare gli studenti sulle tipologie testuali presenti all’esame e trovare un espediente per permettere loro di operare in modo maggiormente creativo e motivante rispetto alle tradizionali esercitazioni cartacee.16 Da questo contesto nasce quindi il primo prototipo di ‘Racconto L2.0’, che si prefiggeva come primissimo obiettivo quello di 14 15

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Ci si riferisce, in questa sede, alla ben nota pratica della ‘peer review’, spesso utilizzata in ambiti scientifici ma anche auspicata in ambiti scolastici e didattici (Caviglia, in pubblicazione; Persico, Pozzi e Sarti 2008). Come già osservava Ushioda riguardo alla dinamica della partecipazione sociale: ‘I just like learning the language because – if there’s stuf f out there that other people are doing you’d want to have to do it yourself – because everyone’s doing it […] It’s harder to work on your own than working with the class’ (Ushioda 2003: 92). Il corso di Diploma Programme al quale ci si riferisce è biennale; al termine dei due anni di studio, gli studenti sostengono un esame internazionale ed universale nel mondo, che attesta il raggiungimento di diversi livelli-soglia di competenza nella lingua straniera. Il programma di studi fa parte dell’International Baccalaureate Organization di Ginevra; .

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esercitare la tipologia testuale narrativa, coinvolgendo lo studente e spezzando la monotonia di simulazione di ‘Paper’ d’esame. Successivamente, si è pensato di estendere il progetto e di pensare allo strumento come ad un modo, indipendente dalla specificità di quel gruppo classe, di sviluppare la produzione scritta creativa degli studenti di italiano L2. Ma che cos’è, nella pratica, ‘Racconto L2.0’? Di fatto, è uno strumento che permette a ciascun utente di avere una propria scrivania virtuale nella quale scrivere più racconti. Ogni racconto viene ‘indirizzato’ dall’insegnante con una traccia iniziale, che deve essere quanto più libera e generica possibile, dato che deve lasciare la possibilità allo studente di adoperare liberamente la propria fantasia. Inoltre, durante il ‘percorso di scrittura’, la storia verrà arricchita di dettagli e colpi di scena grazie alle ‘varianti’ introdotte dalle carte da gioco, che lo studente scopre mano a mano che la narrazione avanza: lo ‘scrittore’, infatti, deve articolare il proprio racconto in sette capitoli, corrispondenti alle sette carte presenti sulla ‘scrivania virtuale’. Ciascun capitolo viene indirizzato da ciò che la carta da gioco suggerisce, e ogni capitolo non può essere più lungo di cento parole: in questo modo, lo studente è anche costretto a selezionare le informazioni più interessanti e rilevanti per la narrazione, evitando così il rischio di incorrere in ripetizioni e divagazioni fuori tema. Mentre lo studente pubblica, capitolo per capitolo, la propria storia, i lettori potranno commentare le ‘puntate precedenti’ e potranno, addirittura, inf luenzare l’andamento della narrazione, parteggiando per un personaggio piuttosto che per un altro o inf luenzando le scelte narrative dello scrittore. Inoltre, i lettori possono anche segnalare se, nella scrittura, sono stati commessi errori o imprecisioni: il narratore quindi, facendo tesoro dei suggerimenti dei lettori, può evitare di incappare nello stesso errore successivamente. Da queste premesse è venuto allora a delinearsi il progetto definitivo di ‘Racconto L2.0’, che si articola in diverse fasi:


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1. Ricette per una buona scrittura La prima fase della somministrazione del progetto prevede alcune lezioni tradizionali introduttive su come si scrive un racconto: si analizzano gli elementi costitutivi del testo, si evidenziano le tecniche e gli elementi che permettono al testo di essere f luido e accattivante, si ricordano i principi fondamentali che consentono alla narrazione di essere coerente e coesa. 2. Somministrazione del test iniziale Con l’estensione del progetto a diversi discenti di lingua italiana L2, si è pensato di utilizzare lo strumento anche come modo di consolidamento di alcune forme linguistiche dei curricula di livello intermedio/ avanzato17 dell’italiano L2. Pertanto, è stato necessario pensare ad un test di livello iniziale per evidenziare quali siano le debolezze di ciascun gruppo di studenti, in modo da direzionare gli input linguistici verso tali argomenti. 3. Familiarizzazione con gli strumenti virtuali Il primissimo passo che gli studenti devono compiere nel proprio spazio di scrittura è la familiarizzazione con l’ambiente virtuale: nonostante esso sia intuitivo e di facile utilizzo, è utile un iniziale periodo di orientamento all’uso del mezzo. 4. Inizio del gioco Dopo aver definito il proprio profilo, gli utenti possono diventare ‘scrittori per un giorno’ e iniziare a cimentarsi nel compito assegnato. Carta per carta, gli improvvisati scrittori dovranno sviluppare la propria storia, facendo attenzione a seguire le direttive e, nello stesso tempo, a non perdere il senso di coerenza del testo. 5. Pareri e commenti Durante la fase di scrittura, gli scrittori diventeranno anche al contempo giudici dei racconti altrui: potranno infatti commentare ogni singolo capitolo sia per ciò che concerne il contenuto, sia per quanto riguarda la correttezza formale. A questo proposito, è utile ricordare che è possibile consultare alcune schematizzazioni visuali degli argomenti linguistici principali dei livelli linguistici di riferimento. 17

Sebbene in una delle sperimentazioni si sia coinvolto un gruppo di studenti a livello principiante.

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6. Questionario di gradimento Al termine della stesura del racconto e della lettura dei lavori altrui, è possibile votare il racconto che ha colpito di più ciascun partecipante, in modo da ottenere una classifica del miglior scrittore. Inoltre, agli studenti viene richiesto di compilare un questionario di gradimento sull’attività proposta, in modo da evidenziarne debolezze e punti di forza. 7. Somministrazione del test finale Al termine della scrittura di più racconti, e del conseguente approfondimento linguistico sulle strutture selezionate nel test iniziale, è opportuno somministrare nuovamente lo stesso test per evidenziare se vi siano stati miglioramenti e in quale misura e campo questi siano stati ottenuti. Questa, in sostanza, la struttura costitutiva del progetto. La realizzazione ha previsto, quindi, una serie di strumenti e ambientazioni che collaborano sincreticamente tra loro per la buona riuscita dell’attività.

6 Racconto L2.0: Tecnicismi Una delle caratteristiche principali dello strumento, apparsa fin da subito necessaria, era l’estetica: per essere ef ficace, lo spazio virtuale avrebbe dovuto essere chiaro, maneggevole, di semplice utilizzo, immediato, oltre che piacevole e accattivante.18 Di conseguenza, una volta delineato lo schema costitutivo dello strumento – ovvero quello di realizzare uno strumento didattico che permettesse allo studente di esercitarsi sulla produzione scritta di un racconto a puntate – la prima problematica è stata quella di individuare un ambiente virtuale idoneo ad accogliere l’idea di fondo. 18

Si è infatti consapevoli della presenza di altri software che supportano, per loro natura, la scrittura condivisa: uno su tutti, GoogleDocs. Con l’utilizzo di tali strumenti, tuttavia, sarebbe venuta meno la componente estetica ludica che invece è uno dei punti cardine del progetto.


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In questo senso, lo spazio che meglio si poteva prestare al monitoraggio del processo, oltre che del prodotto finale, poteva essere un LCMS:19 tuttavia, l’analisi di alcune piattaforme ampiamente dif fuse e opensource20 come Moodle21 o Docebo,22 hanno evidenziato un’inadeguatezza estetica agli intenti, ludici e immersivi, dello strumento. La scelta finale per la realizzazione del progetto è caduta su Wordpress,23 famoso CMS24 utilizzato generalmente per la creazione di blog e spazi virtuali personali. La scelta di Wordpress è essenzialmente stata dettata dalla possibilità di estrema personalizzazione del sistema, sia graficamente, sia dal punto di vista gestionale, nonché dalla ampia disponibilità di plug-in, ulteriori software corollari che estendono le funzioni del sistema. Successivamente al primo prototipo funzionante, e graficamente convincente, di ‘Racconto L2.0’, la scelta della piattaforma è ulteriormente virata verso un sottoprodotto di Wordpress, ovvero WordpressMu,25 l’evoluzione multiutente della piattaforma Wordpress: di fatto, essa permette di gestire contemporaneamente un numero infinito di blog facenti tutti parte dello stesso gruppo di lavoro.

Learning Content Management System, ovvero piattaforma che permette di pianificare tutti gli aspetti organizzativi di un corso e-learning e che, inoltre, ‘usa le tecnologie web per gestire tutte le attività inerenti la creazione, l’indicizzazione, lo stoccaggio, il reperimento di materiali didattici’ (Macrì 2007: 69). 20 Per open souce si intende un software rilasciato insieme al codice sorgente che ha generato il programma. In questo modo, ogni utente è un potenziale programmatore e può apportare migliorie al programma in un clima di libera e spontanea collaborazione di gruppo. 21 Software open source ideato e realizzato da Martin Dougiamas nel 2002 per la formazione a distanza e per la creazione di comunità di apprendimento virtuali basate sulle teorie del costruttivismo sociale; . 22 Progetto, tutto italiano, di piattaforma open source per l’e-learning, nato dalle ceneri di Spaghettilearning nel 2003; . 23 . 24 Content Management System, software che gestisce i contenuti di un sito Internet e che sgrava l’utente dal dover programmare il contenitore delle informazioni che egli vuole trasmettere. 25 Con l’ultimo grande aggiornamento di Wordpress alla versione 3.0, WordpressMu non è più un progetto sviluppato parallelamente, dato che è stato integrato nella versione uf ficiale tramite la funzione ‘Network’. 19

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La piattaforma di Wordpress Mu ha quindi favorito la realizzazione di una rete di utenti che utilizzano il medesimo spazio virtuale per la creazione delle proprie storie; af finchè la rete virtuale diventasse anche rete sociale, alla piattaforma Wordpress è stato anche aggiunto Buddypress,26 software aggiuntivo di Wordpress che permette di creare una rete sociale, simile a quella di Facebook, tra gli utenti di WordpressMu: in questo modo, essi intrattengono rapporti di ‘amicizia’ tra di loro, accedendo con più velocità ai rispettivi spazi di scrittura e inviandosi messaggi e commenti in modo più immediato. Tramite WordpressMu e Buddypress è stato pertanto possibile preparare e ultimare lo spazio virtuale di produzione scritta per gli studenti-utenti; tuttavia, al momento della somministrazione e del primo testing del progetto, si è sentita la mancanza di un ulteriore ambiente ‘d’appoggio’ per distribuire documenti e questionari ai partecipanti: in questo caso, ciò che di fatto era necessario era una piattaforma LCMS che gestisse gli aspetti organizzativi di smistamento delle risorse ai partecipanti e che tenesse memoria di ogni singolo movimento degli utenti al suo interno, in modo da monitorarne l’operosità e da permettere, a posteriori, un’analisi su tale tracciatura. Pertanto, è stata af fiancata una piattaforma, basata su Moodle, che facilitasse lo scambio di file con i partecipanti. In definitiva, il progetto si avvale di due diverse ambientazioni, ovvero: – ‘Il blog del narratore’ (ovvero Wordpress-Mu): lo spazio narrativo per ciascuno studente, con tanto di carte da gioco che indirizzano il percorso, e di apparato sociale che permette di mettere in comunicazione continua gli utenti; – ‘Il sommario’ (ovvero Moodle): lo spazio di corollario in cui l’utente ha la possibilità di usufruire dei test, dei questionari, degli approfondimenti sulle tipologie testuali e sulle strutture linguistiche, nonché dei link agli strumenti di correzione ortografica e formale presenti in rete.

26 .


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7 I Primi Risultati ‘Racconto L2.0’ è stato finora testato su una cinquantina di studenti di italiano per stranieri di diversa provenienza, età, background scolastico, competenza linguistica e motivazione di studio dell’italiano. In particolare, pare rilevante indicare il range d’età degli studenti che stanno testando lo strumento – ovvero, dai quattordici ai trentun’anni – e la loro provenienza geografica – i Paesi più rappresentativi sono la Spagna e gli Stati Uniti, ma si registrano anche utenti dalla Polonia, Francia, Estonia, Marocco, Danimarca, Sudafrica, Svezia, Inghilterra. La primissima fase di testing dello strumento è avventura nel corso dell’anno scolastico 2009/2010: gli studenti, di età compresa tra i diciassette e i vent’anni, frequentavano l’ultimo anno del Diploma Programme dell’International Baccalaureate Organisation presso la scuola Deledda International School.27 Importante sottolineare che il 100 percento degli studenti aveva già utilizzato, in passato, la maggior parte degli strumenti collaborativi e comunicativi del Web 2.0. Gli otto studenti hanno avuto la possibilità di utilizzare lo strumento come mero metodo di innovazione nella tipologia di esercizi preparatori per l’esame di fine anno, senza quindi avvalersi della piattaforma Moodle e delle sue specificità. I risultati derivanti dai questionari di gradimento somministrati mostrano che, nel complesso, l’esperienza ha riscosso un buon successo tra gli studenti. In dettaglio, il 100 percento degli studenti partecipanti ha trovato l’esperienza utile, e nessuno di loro avrebbe voluto fare quest’attività con strumenti tradizionali, dato che l’esercitazione ha ‘spezzato la monotonia’ (Alessandra, diciott’anni) della preparazione all’esame finale. Inoltre, il 75 percento degli studenti pensa, con questa attività, di aver migliorato sensibilmente le proprie abilità di scrittura. Ulteriori commenti degli studenti sono stati riguardo alla ludicità e all’utilità dello strumento: ‘attività creativa’ (Nathan, diciassette anni), ‘divertente ed originale’ (Emilio, diciassette anni), ‘utile, perché ho imparato a usare il blog’ (Karina, vent’anni), ‘utile, perché imparo ad essere più creativa’ (Alessandra, diciott’anni). 27 .

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La prima vera somministrazione del progetto nella sua interezza è avvenuta l’anno scolastico successivo, nella classe del primo anno di corso del Diploma Programme nella stessa scuola. La somministrazione è ancora in corso e terminerà con la fine dell’anno scolastico. Gli studenti coinvolti nella sperimentazione sono in tutto sedici, di età compresa tra i quindici e i diciannove anni, divisi in due gruppi: mentre il primo gruppo sta fruendo dell’esperienza in maniera ‘tecnologica’, la seconda metà degli studenti funge da gruppo di controllo dello strumento. Di fatto, le indicazioni iniziali su come scrivere il racconto assegnato sono state le stesse; cambia però la modalità di somministrazione, che nel gruppo di controllo prevede solamente carta e penna, nessuna carta da gioco che direzioni la narrazione e nessuna rete sociale che valuti e commenti le produzioni. Tutti gli studenti partecipanti all’esperienza sono stati sottoposti al test iniziale per verificare le criticità dal punto di vista linguistico-grammaticale del gruppo classe; successivamente, entrambi i gruppi si sono cimentati con la scrittura del primo racconto. Al termine del primo racconto, i partecipanti del gruppo ‘tecnologico’ hanno anche compilato il questionario di gradimento relativo al primo racconto assegnato. I risultati derivanti dal questionario mostrano che l’80 percento ritiene che l’esperienza sia utile, dato che ‘è un modo alternativo e divertente per scrivere un racconto, inoltre mi è piaciuta l’idea delle carte che danno degli alti e bassi al racconto rendendolo più interessante e pieno di colpi di scena!’ (Vico, quindici anni), che ‘è un modo divertente per insegnarci a scrivere un racconto e allo stesso tempo darci l’oppurtunità di scrivere un racconto senza doverci attenere a una traccia specifica’ (Ludovica, sedici anni), e che ‘mi ha aiutato a capire le mie abilità nella scrittura e gli errori che faccio’ (Maria, diciassette anni). Nessuno degli studenti avrebbe preferito fare quest’attività con metodi tradizionali, ma un 20 percento ha trovato dif ficoltà nell’uso della piattaforma. Tali dif ficoltà sono essenzialmente dovute al malfunzionamento del correttore automatico, ‘quindi avevo dif ficolta a capire se una parola era giusta o sbagliata’ (Maria, diciassette anni). Inoltre, il 60 percento degli studenti ritiene di aver migliorato le proprie abilità informatiche e, soprattutto, le proprie abilità di scrittura. In


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generale, gli studenti valutano positivamente la presenza delle carte da gioco nel racconto, in quanto esse ‘rendono sia la scrittura che la lettura degli altri racconti divertente’ (Giulia, quindici anni) e ‘ti lasciano molta libertà’ (Aaron, sedici anni). Nel complesso, quindi, il 70 percento degli studenti ha trovato quest’attività piacevole, ‘perché a me piace scrivere, e questo metodo di scrivere era innovativo e interessante che non avevo mai provato prima’ (Giorgia, diciannove anni) e ‘perchè è un metodo divertente per imparare a scrivere, avrei condensato l’attività in un tempo minore, nonostante questo mi ha fatto molto piacere portare a termine l’attività’ (Maria, diciassette anni). Infine, gli studenti hanno aggiunto qualche suggerimento per il futuro: la maggior parte di loro ha lamentato la mancanza di un contatore di parole ef ficace per la scrittura del ‘capitolo’ – si ricorda, infatti, il limite di parole pari a 100; esiste un contatore automatico integrato nel sistema, ma questo non si aggiorna in tempo reale; inoltre, una studentessa suggerisce di utilizzare delle carte dif ferenti per ogni utente. Sono invece ancora in via di raccolta ed elaborazione i dati relativi al gruppo di controllo, che permetteranno un interessante confronto anche contenutistico tra i due gruppi di lavoro. ‘Racconto L2.0’ è stato anche testato su un gruppo di ventitré studenti in mobilità internazionale del programma Erasmus, iscritti al corso di lingua italiana per stranieri di livello principiante. In questo caso, il tempo di somministrazione dell’esercitazione è stato troppo breve per ottenere delle storie complete; in ef fetti, la processualità e l’avvicendamento delle diverse fasi del progetto presuppongono la possibilità di disporre di un tempo minimo di almeno una quindicina di ore in presenza dedicate esclusivamente al progetto, alle quali si sommano alcune ulteriori ore di completamento del compito a casa.28 28

Data la particolare tipologia di apprendenti, ovvero studenti fuori casa e spesso senza la possibilità di fruire di una connessione Internet a casa, in questo contesto si è dato per assunto che fosse possibile portare avanti la scrittura dei racconti solamente durante le ore di presenza dedicate esperessamente al progetto. Disponendo allora, ad esempio, di 7 incontri settimanali da 2 ore ciascuno per la stesura dei capitoli relativi alle 7 carte, per la revisione degli stessi e per la lettura dei racconti dei compagni, e con un eventuale lasso di tempo ulteriore per terminare a casa il lavoro in classe o per

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C’è da aggiungere poi che il livello linguistico di partenza degli studenti era decisamente basso: nonostante il gruppo classe fosse, nel complesso, veloce e vivace nell’apprendimento, è stato comunque ambizioso sottoporre lo strumento, opportunamente semplificato nelle tracce iniziali e nelle carte da gioco, al gruppo principiante. Tuttavia, è stato possibile raccogliere i pareri e le impressioni sullo strumento anche di questo gruppo di discenti. Il 100 percento degli studenti ha trovato l’esperienza utile, dato che ‘io ho imparato molto a scrivere in italiano con una attività divertente’ (Iñaki, ventiquattro anni), ‘mi ha sembrato molto utile per cominciare a scrivere veramente in italiano’ (Patricia, venticinque anni), ‘perche io ho imparato molto parole che prima di fare il corso non sappevo’ ( Juan Pablo, ventidue anni). Nessuno studente avrebbe preferito fare questa attività con metodi tradizionali e nessuno di loro ha avuto dif ficoltà nell’utilizzo della piattaforma. Le negatività evidenziate dagli studenti sono legate essenzialmente alla dispersività delle due piattaforme (34 percento) e alla dif ficoltà linguistica di espressione legata al livello di competenza linguistica (17 percento). Il 50 percento degli studenti ritiene di aver migliorato le proprie abilità informatiche, e il 100 percento ritiene di aver migliorato le proprie abilità di scrittura. Nuovamente, anche le carte sono state valutate positivamente, perché interessanti e perché ‘ti aiuta a fare la tua storia’ (Camille, ventitré anni). In definitiva, l’attività è piaciuta al 100 percento degli studenti, perché ‘è altra maniera di dare le lezioni’ ( Juan Pablo, ventidue anni), ‘perché è stato divertente fare una storia’ (Regina, diciannove anni), ‘perche io ho imparato’ (Coral, diciannove anni). L’unico suggerimento evidenziato dalla quasi totalità del gruppo di studenti è stato quello di aumentare il tempo necessario allo svolgimento dell’attività, anche perché non tutti gli studenti potevano utilizzare la connessione Internet da casa. Infine, lo strumento è ancora in fase di sperimentazione con un gruppo di studenti stranieri della Facoltà di Lingue e letterature straniere dell’Università di Genova, di livello intermedio, che sta ultimando la fase di stesura del primo racconto. compilare i questionari di gradimento, le dif ficoltà relative alla connessione a casa sarebbero state risolte, o quantomeno aggirate.


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8 Risorse Esterne: il Web 2.0 Gli studenti che, fino ad oggi, hanno partecipato al testing del progetto ‘Racconto L2.0’ hanno dimostrato una spiccata capacità nell’utilizzo a prioprio vantaggio di Internet e del web. Ef fettivamente, uno degli scopi secondari del progetto è proprio quello di far familiarizzare gli studenti del nuovo millennio, che Prensky definirebbe come ‘nativi digitali’ (Prensky 2001), con il web 2.0 applicato alla didattica. Degli usi inizialmente ipotizzati dal docente, gli studenti hanno dato prova di far correntemente uso del correttore ortografico del browser, servizio utile e generalmente attendibile, correlato da Google Translate,29 il traduttore istantaneo e ‘sociale’ di Google che basa l’af finamento dello strumento sulle correzioni e le migliorie di traduzione apportate dagli utenti stessi che ne fanno uso. Gli studenti hanno anche dimostrato di utilizzare in grande misura dizionari online, sia monolingue sia, più frequentemente, bilingue,30 dizionari di sinonimi e contrari e coniugatori di verbi online – non sempre completamente attendibili. Poco sorprendentemente, gli studenti non pensano invece di utilizzare la Rete come deposito di esempi linguistici da cui attingere31 e a cui domandare in caso di dubbio: Google non ha infatti l’aria di essere un grande corpus di testi, più o meno corretti, più o meno attuali, da interrogare?32 In fondo, la correttezza del termine ricercato non la si ottiene considerando la frequenza d’uso33 dell’espressione, in una sorta di grande dizionario

29 . 30 Il più utilizzato è stato WordReference, . 31 Nonostante gli stessi studenti fossero da tempo avvezzi, nelle lezioni in classe, ad utilizzare Google proprio come repository di vocaboli, di combinazioni lessicali, di forme ortografiche corrette. 32 ‘Even a middle-sized text corpus can solve quite a number of the language dif ficulties an intermediate-to-advanced L2 learner is likely to encounter in her or his writing’ (Caviglia 2004). 33 Ovvero, quante volte il termine cercato viene trovato da Google nei milioni e milioni di siti che il motore analizza. Quindi, ad esempio, se si è in dubbio su due varianti ortografiche di una stessa parola, probabilmente Google restituirà dei risultati sia in

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folksonomiano?34 Quest’enorme ricchezza sembra essere sfuggita ai ‘nativi digitali’ che hanno partecipato all’esperienza.

9 Sviluppi futuri Il futuro di ‘Racconto L2.0’ prevede la somministrazione del progetto a molteplici tipologie di utenti: infatti, essendo questo uno strumento dichiaratamente ludico, è di ef ficace utilizzo sia con giovani studenti di italiano L2, che concepiscono lo strumento con un vero modo ludico di sfidare amici e compagni, sia con un pubblico di studenti universitari e adulti, che possono sfruttare la ludicità dello strumento per apprendere nuovi concetti e esercitare la propria abilità linguistica produttiva.35 Nonostante lo strumento abbia, fino ad ora, ottenuto consensi e giudizi generalmente positivi dagli studenti, vi sono ancora alcune modifiche e migliorie, soprattutto tecniche, che permetterebbero di incrementare ulteriormente la qualità dell’esperienza. Gli aspetti da potenziare sarebbero quindi: 1. Uniformità e compenetrabilità degli ambienti. Attualmente, il sistema prevede l’utilizzo di due piattaforme virtuali, Wordpress e Moodle: di fatto, l’utente, per fruire di tutti i contenuti, deve spostarsi continuamente da una piattaforma all’altra. Il movimento tra le due piattaforme dovrebbe diventare, idealmente, il più

34 35

un senso sia nell’altro: ciò che però fa intuire quale sia la versione corretta è il numero di occorrenze che Google registra. La Folksonomy è una categorizzazione di contenuto generata e organizzata dal popolo di esso fruitore. Di fatto, in una maniera particolarmente democratica, il fruitore del contenuto è anche colui che decide del contenuto stesso. Se lo scopo dell’attività ludica è ben sostanziato e reso chiaro all’apprendente, anche adulto, esso avrà esito positivo, secondo quanto già Balboni ricordava riguardo al cosiddetto ‘patto andragogico’ (Balboni 2008: 104).


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f luido possibile, magari con un aspetto grafico comune e, soprattutto, con un singolo accesso condiviso. La soluzione di questo problema prevedrebbe la condivisione del database utenti di Moodle con quello di Wordpress – strada già tentata ma con scarsi risultati –, oppure l’utilizzo di un sistema di terze parti di Single Sign On.36 2. Limitazione dell’intervento dell’utente. L’utente, attualmente, ha la possibilità sia di modificare il testo immesso precedentemente, sia di scrivere un numero maggiore di parole per capitolo. Sarebbe utile, invece, limitare i ‘poteri’ dell’utente, in modo da impedirgli di scrivere più del dovuto, anche per ragioni di tipo grafico: ad ogni carta, infatti, deve graficamente corrispondere il suo capitolo. Inoltre, l’utente non dovrebbe poter modificare quanto già scritto: ciò succede in funzione di commenti o suggerimenti dei compagni; ma, in questo modo, viene meno la funzione educativa per gli altri partecipanti, che non avrebbero modo di imparare dagli errori altrui. La soluzione a questo tipo di problema è essenzialmente dipendente dal codice PHP con il quale è scritto il software Wordpress. Una variazione del codice permetterebbe anche questo tipo di personalizzazione.

10 Conclusioni Il progetto ‘Racconto L2.0’ risulta aver riscosso una buona quantità di riscontri positivi. Sebbene il sistema sia ancora in fase di rodaggio, e molti miglioramenti quindi possano essere fatti sia da un punto di vista contenutistico, sia, più significativamente, per ciò che concerne il sistema tecnico informatico su cui si basa, è stato già possibile raccogliere un buon numero di pareri degli utenti sull’esperienza. La quasi totalità dei giudizi è positiva, e tale risultato incoraggia a continuare su questa strada. 36 Shibboleth () sembrerebbe fare al caso di ‘Racconto L2.0’, dato che è fallita anche l’opzione di utilizzo di OpenId ().

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I giudizi positivi sono tuttavia basati solamente sulla percezione dello strumento dall’utente, ovvero dimostrano in parte la validità dell’ambiente come mezzo ludico per l’esercizio della produzione scritta; tuttavia, è ancora prematuro af fermare con certezza che lo strumento sia, a tutti gli ef fetti, ef ficace, dato che ancora mancano dati e rilevazioni per ciò che concerne il taglio linguistico-grammaticale del progetto. Per ottenere indicazioni in tal senso, bisognerà attendere il prossimo resoconto del progetto basato sull’intera somministrazione e sul testing delle competenze linguisticoformali degli utenti-scrittori.

Bibliografia Balboni, P.E. (2008). Le Sfide di Babele: Insegnare le Lingue nelle Società Complesse. Torino: UTET. Banzato, M. (2006). Blog e Didattica. Dal Web Publishing alle Comunità di Blog per Classe in Rete. Ortona: Tecnologie didattiche, n. 38, Menabò, 23–31. Cartelli, A. and Marco, P. (eds) (2008). Encyclopaedia of Information Communication Technology. PA: Idea Group Reference, Hershey. Caviglia, F. (2004). ‘“Advanced Literacy”. Bridging Traditions in the Study of Language and Culture’. In Hansen, L. (ed.), Foreign Language Studies and Interdisciplinarity, 105–19. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. consultato il 26 gennaio 2011. Caviglia, F. New Media Literacies for Advanced Foreign Language Learning and Teaching (in pubblicazione). Dettori, G. and Giannetti, T. (2006). Ambienti Narrativi per l’Apprendimento, Tecnologie Didattiche, 37, 20–7. Fratter, I. (2004). Tecnologie per l’Insegnamento delle Lingue. Roma: Carocci. Friso, C. (2009). La Scuola Davanti al Blog. Tecnologie di Rete per la Didattica. Torino: SEI. Giglio, A. (2011). L’Edutainment nella Didattica dell’Italiano per Stranieri. In Ligorio, M.B., Mazzoni, E., Casini Schaerf, M. and Simone, A. (eds), Manuale di Didattica Universitaria OnLine. Napoli: ScriptaWeb (in pubblicazione). Hansen, L. (2004). Foreign Language Studies and Interdisciplinarity. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.


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Jenkins, H. (2004). ‘Why Heather Can Write’, Technology Review, < http://www. technologyreview.com/business/13473/> consultato il 26 gennaio 2011. Ligorio, M.B., Talamo, A., and Pontecorvo, C. (2004). ‘Building Intersubjectivity at a Distance during the Collaborative Writing of Fairytales’, Computers and Education, 45(3), 357–74. Ligorio, M.B., Mazzoni, E., Casini S., M. and S., Aurelio (2011). Manuale di Didattica Universitaria OnLine. Napoli: ScriptaWeb. Macrì, P. (2007). Editoria, E-learning e Multimedia. Genova: ECIG. Mich, L. and Franch, M. (2000). ‘Un Modello per la Valutazione dei Siti Web’. Trento: Quaderni dell’Università di Trento. Dipartimento di informatica e studi aziendali, 37 consultato il 26 gennaio 2011. Mizza, D. and O’Toole, R. (2007). ‘La Tecnologia al Servizio di una Nuova Didattica della Scrittura: un Percorso Interattivo in Italiano come Lingua Straniera’, Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 3(3), consultato il 26 gennaio 2011. Persico, D., Pozzi, F. and Sarti, L. (2008). ‘Fostering Collaboration in CSCL’. In Cartelli, A. and Palma, M. (eds), Encyclopaedia of Information Communication Technology, 335–40. PA: Idea Group Reference, Hershey. Petrucco, C. and De Rossi, M. (2009). Narrare con il Digital Storytelling a Scuola e nelle Organizzazioni. Roma: Carocci. Piaget, J. (1979). La Costruzione del Reale nel Bambino. Firenze: La nuova Italia. Poli, S. (2004). Il Filo di Arianna. Fasano: Schena edizioni. Prensky, M. (2001). ‘Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants’, On the Horizon, MCB University consultato il 26 gennaio 2011. Prensky, M. (2006). Mamma non Rompere. Sto Imparando! Terni: Multiplayer.it Edizioni. Revelli, G. (2008). Da Ulisse a…Da Ulisse a…Il Viaggio negli Abissi Marini tra Immaginazione e Realtà. Pisa: ETS. Rossiter, M. (2005). ‘Narrative and Stories in Adult Teaching and Learning’, ERIC Digest, 241 accessed 26 January 2011. Thompson, J. (2007). ‘Is Education 1.0 ready for Web 2.0 Students?’ Innovate, 3(4), consultato il 24 aprile 2008.

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Ushioda, E. (2003). ‘Motivation as a Socially Mediated Process’. In Little, D., Ridley, J. and Ushioda, E. (eds), Learner Autonomy in the Foreign Language Classroom: Teacher, Learner, Curriculum and Assessment, Dublin: Autentik. Zanoli, F. (2010). Videogiochi e Italiano L2/LS. Milano: Italiano LinguaDue, 2(1) consultato il 26 gennaio 2011.

Susanna Nocchi

Buongiorno, mi dica…or: Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem?

1 Introduction This article aims at describing the author’s observation and analysis of the running of a language course held in Second Life®,1 which constituted a pilot study, part of her PhD research on exploring the potential of virtual worlds to promote Intercultural Awareness in students learning Italian as a Foreign Language. In the article the author will explain the rationale behind the choice of virtual worlds for the development of Intercultural Awareness and present her pilot study and preliminary results of the data analysis. The course was observed through the lens of Cultural Historical Activity Theory, in order to pinpoint examples of good practice and problematic areas to be addressed. Technology and technology-mediated communication have been extensively used as valuable tools in education for decades. Computer technology is changing at a very fast rate, opening the way to new modes of communication and providing us with a wealth of inter-cultural contacts and interaction which can be exploited for foreign language education, as they provide additional and alternative ways to approach the speakers and the culture of the foreign language. Virtual worlds (VWs), in particular, of fer an exciting environment for learning, as they are populated with high numbers of visitors from all over the world. Some educators have picked up this opportunity and have been experimenting with teaching in VWs in the past few years. Also, many universities have their own virtual spaces 1

This presentation is not af filiated with or sponsored by Linden Research.

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and are running courses in-world. In 2007, for instance, there were over 200 universities or academic institutions involved in Second Life® ( Jennings, Collins 2007; Kelton 2007). The interest of the educational community is definitely present and growing and it has stimulated a few studies on the potential of VWs as an educational space. 1.1 Virtual worlds Bell describes a virtual world as a ‘synchronous, persistent network of people, represented as avatars, facilitated by networked computers’ (Bell 2008: 2; my italics). These are undeniably the main features that dif ferentiate VWs from previous virtual educational environments. VWs are synchronous as their users move, act and interact with each other at the same time. Synchronicity makes the interaction feel more realistic, thus shaping both the kind of communication occurring between the users and the results of such communication. Communication in the virtual world of Second Life® has become even more realistic since Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) technology was introduced, allowing residents to talk to each other as well as use text-chat. Persistency stands for the peculiarity of VWs to continue to exist and evolve even when the user is not logged on. Persistency can contribute to create a sense of expectancy and an illusion of reality. The experience of VWs is also made more realistic by the use of avatars. In the case of avatars, the option to align non-verbal elements with communication is a distinctive communicative advantage over previous synchronous educational virtual environments such as MUD Object Oriented (MOOs), where users could move and interact with each other in a fully text-based setting. MOOs were deemed positive in terms of learning, and research verified that they provided a potential for collaborative learning and communication in a creative environment (Warschauer 1997; Turbee 1999; von der Emde, Schneider, Kotter 2001; Dickey 2005). Virtual worlds have often been compared to MOOs, but, where these lacked the opportunity of expressing non-verbal cues. VWs have brought us that step

Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem? 267

ahead, with avatars that can also use gestures, i.e. scripts that allow them to show body language, thus giving the whole experience a more realistic feel: In addition to providing facilities for verbal communication, virtual worlds allow users to align non-verbal elements with their written and/or spoken words. They provide distinct communicative advantages over text-based CMC and groupware tools that do not capture facial expressions and body language and that are therefore limited in terms of their ability to convey feelings and emotions. (Lee 2009: 151)

The aforementioned qualities of VWs can strengthen the sense of presence in their residents and provide opportunities for rich sensory immersive experiences, simulation and role-play. 1.2 Sense of Presence in VWs In 2005 Ondrejka, ex-chief technology of ficer of SL®, wrote: To them [digital worlds residents], digital worlds are real places by any useful definition and can only be understood within that framework. Dismissing the representation of digital worlds as unimportant or irrelevant misses out on basic aspects of what makes us human. (2005: 19)

His statement has been verified by various studies on the relationship between user and avatar and on the sense of Presence in 3D virtual reality and in VWs (Talamo, Ligorio 2001; Bluemink, Järvelä 2006; Riva 2007; Riva et al. 2007, 2009; Ikegami, Hut 2008; Peña, Hancock, Merola 2009). In 2009, Riva et al. wrote: the ability to feel ‘present’ in a virtual reality system – an artefact – basically does not dif fer from the ability to feel ‘present’ in ourbody and the surrounding physical environment in which we are situated. (Riva et al. 2009: 2)

A heightened sense of presence brings the user to a level of experience where both the technology and the external physical environment disappear from his/her phenomenal awareness. This illusion can be powerful and involves

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responses of the human sensory, cognitive and af fective processing systems. In this situation users experience an impression of non-mediation as they fail to perceive or acknowledge the existence of a medium in their communication environment and respond as if the medium were not there. In 2007, Riva et al. undertook an experiment using three dif ferent VW environments in order to see if they could be used as an af fective medium, if they induced a strong sense of presence and if presence and emotions were connected. Their results confirmed the ef ficacy of VWs as an af fective medium and showed a circular interaction between presence and emotions (the feeling of presence was greater in the emotional environments and the emotional state was inf luenced by the level of presence). Also, one interesting study by Peña, Hancock and Merola (2009) observed the strength of the connection between a user and his/her avatar. In the course of their experiments, some participants had been assigned avatars whose aspect could be associated to aggressive cues (those avatars were either dressed in black or wore a Ku Klux Klan robe), whereas others had been assigned avatars that could be associated to positive cues (avatars that were dressed in white or wearing a doctor’s uniform). The results showed evidence that avatar appearance could activate and inhibit specific thoughts and af fect its user’s cognition, even in a negative manner. People who had been assigned avatars in uniforms with aggressive cues had shown comparatively more negative thoughts and more violent re/actions and had inhibited positive concepts more often than participants who had been given the ‘positive’ avatars. Besides, participants in the experiment had remained unaware of the inf luence of their virtual self-representations on their thoughts and attitudes. However, avatars can constitute useful tools for the completion of collaborative tasks, as identification in the avatar makes it easier for students to communicate, take joint decisions and act together (Bluemink, Järvelä 2006). The strong connection in VWs of avatar identification and joint action has been clearly illustrated by Lim: As humans, we find virtual representations of self-meaningful and believable only to the extent that these same representations are able to participate in constructions and collaborations with other avatars. (2009: 4)


Creating one’s own image, shaping, dressing and making one’s avatar more mobile by adding Head Up Displays (HUDs) or gestures strengthens a sense of embodiment, which makes VWs all the more attractive for scientific and educational purposes. It is also interesting to note that recent research has shown that individual avatar’s physical behaviour in VWs is often similar to expected real life behaviour (Yee et al. 2007). Yee’s studies of eye gaze movement and proxemics between avatars in SL® supported hypothesis that social interactions in VWs such as SL®, are governed by the same social norms as the interactions that occur in the physical world. In conclusion, it is dif ficult not to agree with Svensson’s statement: It is important to acknowledge that being social or thinking online is just as valuable as carrying out the corresponding activities in the real world. In particular we need to realize that online experiences are not necessarily secondary to real-world experiences or just non-real. (2003: 125)

2 Culture and Intercultural Awareness Educational policy makers have stressed the importance of the cultural aspects of learning a foreign language (Heyward 2002; Kjartansson, Skopinskaja 2003; Starkey 2007), and socio-cultural competence is by now recognized as a structural component of communicative competence. This is ref lected in many language course syllabi. However, most language teachers find that constraints of time as well as a stress on the structural aspect of the language do not allow them to spend time on its cultural facets. This concern is shared by Sercu and De Wachter (2006) who state that teachers often tend to adopt an incidental approach to culture teaching as they feel they need all available time for language practice. There are also realities where only a very small percentage of students of a foreign language will ever be able to visit the country of their language of study. Their contact

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with that language and its culture is therefore only restricted to their tutors and, sometimes, a very limited amount of native speakers. The need for additional and dif ferentiated input in the foreign language that can bring about a higher awareness of the cultural aspects of that language and facilitate contact with its native speakers is thus quite clear. These contacts are easier to attain in a European situation, where travel between countries is cheaper and more common. Many European students in third level education are actually required to spend one academic year abroad on an Erasmus scholarship, but this period of study is not always as beneficial as one might expect and doesn’t necessarily lead to them coming back with a deeper understanding of the culture of the foreign language (Byram 1999; Coleman 1998). Our students are therefore still quite far from what Zarate calls the ‘European multi-linguists’, able ‘to manage cultural and linguistic uncertainty in situations they only partially grasp’ (Zarate 1999: 11) and familiar with cultural dif ferences in such a way that allows him/her to make choices, manage risks and make use of strategies when confronted with dif ficulties. Virtual worlds, where many cultures and people from all over the world converge and interact, appear to of fer us a multiplicity of stimuli for the learning of foreign languages and the development of an Intercultural Awareness. 2.1 A definition of culture At this point it is important to clarify what I mean by culture. The conceptualization of culture has undergone considerable change over the centuries and in dif ferent disciplines. It is not the purpose of this article to provide a detailed account of such development through time and in the dif ferent fields. I will however give a brief description of the concept of culture, which I adopted in my study and which has been extrapolated from the field of intercultural studies and combined with the Vygotskian idea of culture.


In intercultural studies Kim defines culture as: a universe of information and operative linguistic and non-linguistic communication rituals that gives coherence, continuity, and distinction to a communal way of life. (2001: 46)

According to Kim culture is non-static and members of a group are constantly negotiating their common universe; culture and communication are deeply intertwined and communication is the carrier of the social process. Foreign Language Learning (FLL) researchers on their part have also been increasingly regarding all communication as an intercultural process (Kramsch 1993; Kramsch 1998; Kramsch, Thorne 2002; Thorne 2003; Thorne 2005). A non-static view of culture as a result of encountering and relating with others is represented also in Byram (1997), who suggests a definition of culture which should suit the purposes of FL teachers and learners. I also take into consideration the Vygotskian idea of culture, at the base of the Activity Theory. Culture for Vygotsky (1962) exists in the mind of the individual and also in the same world of human artefacts. Culture is embedded in the artefact itself and ‘reorganizes in concrete, culturally specific ways humans’ natural mental endowments’ (Lantolf, Thorne 2006: 180). In this view culture is not just an ensemble of beliefs and knowledge, interwoven in communication, but it is an essential part of the cultural artefact so that the choice of using a particular artefact can inf luence the user, as tools carry with them a specified culture and historical remains of it. This carries important theoretical consequences for the analysis of what happens through the aid of any medium.

3 Research Question What are the af fordances provided by virtual worlds that can be exploited for the development of Intercultural Awareness and which learning tasks can be used to exploit such af fordances?

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3.1 Af fordances and potential of VWs Lee describes af fordances as: relationships between the properties of an educational intervention and the characteristics of the learner that enable certain kinds of learning to take place. (Lee 2009: 151)

Af fordances are a product both of the individual learner and the task set by the educator – a task that takes place in a particular environment and is mediated by certain tools. An invaluable af fordance of the Web is, according to Anderson, a ‘profound and multifaceted increase in communication and interaction capability’ (2004: 42). This is even more evident in VWs, where geographically dispersed users explore an environment concurrently, with text-based and/or audio communication. Given this potential, collaborative learning has been widely used in VWs. Also, the availability of many areas to explore and dif ferent environments to use and/or build constitutes a great potential for setting up and acting role-plays. Interestingly, Diehl and Prins found that freedom of movement in SL® provides rich opportunities for cross-cultural contact. Their study indicated that SL® members are exposed to myriad cultural identities and found that participation in SL®: activated and provided opportunities to enhance second language proficiencies, competencies, understandings, attitudes, cross-cultural friendships and transcultural identities’. (Diehl and Prins 2008: 114)

The abundance of public spheres in VWs makes for a varied and variable nature of communication (Ikegami, Hut 2008), which can be exploited for the development of language competence and create an audience, a strong motivating factor for students’ production. In addition, a VW space gives educators the chance of working with objects, settings and experiences which would be impossible to have in a real world classroom. Given this list of aspects of VWs, we can summarize the SL® features that can be exploited for developing intercultural awareness in the following list: Potential for a heightened sense of presence; constructivist environment; real-time interaction; variable nature of communication; availability of dif ferent communities; visual impact; simulation, and building.


4 A Theory of Systems: Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) Computer-assisted learning requires a theoretical framework that can accommodate its complexity and diversity of goals and contexts. CulturalHistorical Activity Theory (CHAT) provides a broad conceptual tool for representing the societal and collaborative nature of our tool-mediated social activities and describing the structure, development, and context of computer-supported activities. Furthermore, learning is an extremely complex activity, involving the agency of each individual student and other agencies that may have variable relations amongst them and with the individual agent itself and only an in-depth analysis of what happens during the activity of learning can shed light on it and provide ideas for improvement. Activity Theory has its roots in the works of Karl Marx, who, in his Thesen über Feuerbach (1845), insisted on the importance of recognizing the dialectical relationship between man and his environment. In Marx’s view, activity is the praxis through which man shapes reality. The Russian cultural-historical school of psychology took up the Marxian idea in the 1920s and Vygotsky and his collaborators, Leont’ev and Luria, recognized the impact of social interaction for the development of human cognition and laid the foundation for what was to become the socio-cultural theory of mind and, particularly with Leont’ev, of Activity Theory. Leont’ev stressed the importance, in human development, of social relations and rules of conduct governed by cultural, political and economic institutions. His vision of the structure of human activity encompasses three elements: subject, object and mediating tools that operate on three dif ferent levels: collective activity, individual or group actions and routine operations. His theory has been recontextualized and expanded in the West, particularly by Yrjö Engeström and his team. Engeström’s concept of Activity Theory resulted in a framework where the unit of analysis is the entire activity, involving subject, mediating artefact, object, outcome, community, rules and division of labour, as represented in Figure 2 (Engeström 1999: 31). The distinction between activity, action and operations is at the

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basis of the model. Collective activities are motivated by the need to transform the object into the desired outcomes of the subject and presuppose a common goal for all participants. On the other hand, a collective activity can also be distributed, as each individual fulfils his/her own actions. Individual (or group) action is driven by a goal and automatic operations are driven by the conditions and tools of action at hand. This basic framework has later been expanded so as to include the non-linearity of reality, as dif ferent activities may be occurring at the same time and the components of a community can apply dif ferent actions while taking part in the same activity and aiming at the same object. Some activities can therefore change from one moment to the next, causing a shift of focus in the system; if an activity was to lose the motive that started it, it could be converted into an action, which could then bring about a dif ferent activity. This can also happen if an action turns into a stimulating force and becomes an activity of its own right. Mediating Artefacts

Subject

Rules

Object Outcome

Community

Division of Labour

Figure 2 Engeström’s Activity Theory System

The concept of mediation is central to the activity theoretical view. Mediation breaks with the notion of human beings controlled either from the outside by society or from the inside by themselves. Mediating artefacts shape the way human beings interact with reality and the shaping of external activities ultimately results in shaping internal ones. Besides, tools


ref lect the experiences of other people who have tried to solve those similar problems at an earlier time and invented or modified the tool to make it more ef ficient. Such previous experiences are accumulated into the tools and in the knowledge of how they should be used and tools carry with them the historical remnants of their development. In this way, the use of tools becomes a means for the accumulation and transmission of social knowledge, as it inf luences not only of external behaviour, but also of the mental functioning of individuals. Learning is conceptualized as an activity, and learners are thus conceived as a product of their own and their group’s previous history. Learning is thus distributed among individuals, colleagues and co-workers, the materials used, the artefacts and the practical and semiotic tools used. We know that Internet-mediated intercultural foreign language communication can produce tension and frustration (Belz 2003; Kramsch, Thorne 2002; Muller-Hartmann 2000; Schneider, von der Emde 2006). In Activity Theory, when contradictions occur, development may emerge out of their resolution in the form of Expansive Learning (Engeström 2004). Problems in this sense can be resources. This attention to the role of mediation and to the occurrence of contradictions informs my data analysis and the study of what occurs during the SL® courses.

5 Design of Pilot Study and Data Analysis This pilot study was the first step in my research into the potential of VWs for the development of intercultural awareness in the learning of a foreign language. The course was designed with the collaboration of Ms Carmen Dell’Aria from the University of Palermo. Ms Dell’Aria was conducting her own research for her ITALS Master at the University of Venice. The course was aimed at a group of third-level Irish students of Italian in the International Business and Languages (IBL) degree at the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), Ireland. The IBL course is a four year degree course of fered by the Faculty of Business with the Faculty of Applied Arts

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and has 50 per cent business content and 50 per cent foreign language content. The third year of the IBL is spent in the country of the student’s major language of study, under the Erasmus Programme. During their permanence abroad, students attend a foreign academic institution and are expected to take exams. The SL® course was part of the assessment for Level 9P – a year-long module which is taught one hour a week and has the particular aim to prepare DIT students for their year abroad, by equipping them with the necessary language, information and intercultural skills needed. The module is assessed through three assessments; project: 40 per cent, continuous assessment: 30 per cent and presentation: 30 per cent. The intended learning outcomes of the SL® course were to get students acquainted with some of the situations they may encounter during their Erasmus experience in Italy, provide them with domain related vocabulary and immerse them in an Italian setting with native Italian speakers. The course was taught through Italian and the students’ FL competence was mixed, A1 to B1 lower of the CEFR.2 The SL® course was structured in six sessions of about ninety minutes each that took place once a week over a three month period during the second teaching term. Each session portrayed a dif ferent cultural situation, took place within a dif ferent environment and provided various tasks: role-plays, conversation, simulation, quizzes and games. Each topic was completed in two lessons: one face-to-face during the Level 9P class and one in-world. The SL® sessions accounted for 40 per cent of the continuous assessment for Level 9P. Students who had home access to SL® were of fered the choice to take the course. Other students took an alternative assessment. During the course, the Irish students interacted with the Italian native speakers, who comprised the two Italian lecturers and four of Ms. Dell’Aria’s Italian university students. Specific pair or group tasks were allocated for the development of language competence and intercultural awareness. The topics for the six sessions are detailed in Table 18.

2

Common European Framework of Reference.

Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem? 277 Table 18 The SL® Course Session

Title

1

Arrival and welcome

2

In a bank

3

Health and the Health Service

4

At the Police Station

5

Finding Accommodation

6

At the University

Setting

Theme

Airport

Getting to know people Dealing with money and bank services Human body, health problems and health care Reporting crimes, police forces Houses, furniture, dealing with problems in the house. Going to college, Italian III level system

Bank Hospital/ Chemist’s Police Station Block of apartments University Campus

5.1 Data collection A wiki was set up for students and tutors. There students could find information for each of the sessions, reading material, vocabulary, videos, grammar tables and questionnaires. Excerpts from recordings and photos of each session were regularly uploaded on the wiki. Students were encouraged to access it, so as to be prepared for the sessions to come and were asked to write their comments on the sessions they had attended. Before the start of the course, each student was requested to write a few lines about their experience with the Internet and their expectations regarding this course. None of them had ever visited SL® before. The group met once a week, for six weeks and took active part in various tasks and language activities during the sessions. Each session was recorded using FRAPS.3 The recordings were then observed and analysed by the researcher. The recordings of some tasks were transcribed and the transcriptions analysed. Records of text-chats where kept, when needed. Students were also encouraged to visit again the areas in SL® where the sessions had taken place. At the end of the course each student was individually interviewed by the researcher and the semi-structured interviews were recorded. 3

FRAPS is a screen capture, video capture utility for computer applications.

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The researcher had her own blog where she reported about the sessions and wrote her observations and thoughts after each of them. It is important to mention that the students were also asked to provide additional data for the study carried out by the Italian colleague. 5.2 Data analysis For the purpose of this paper, I will present an initial analysis of one type of task, the role-play, and choose it as my unit of analysis. An activity theoretical representation of a general role-play taking place during one of the SL® sessions is shown in Figure 3, where the subject of the activity is the student performing the role-play. The object has been identified as the will to communicate ef fectively with the native speaker and give or obtain relevant information from him/her, according to the task set.

Mediating Artefacts computer used by subject, software, internet connection, audio hardware, languages used, the avatar. All the objects with which the subject interacted during the task. Dictionaries and online support. Interlocutor/s.

Subject student

Rules Role-play rules Rules governing that particular Italian setting SL software rules

Community Irish students and the Italian lecturer. The other Italian lecturer, sometimes.

Object

Outcome (intended and unintended)

communicate ef fectively, exchange information.

reinforcing vocabulary. learning new specific lexical items, acquiring awareness of culturally specific behaviour such as use of register, importance of certain personal information, learning about specific cultural aspects of the foreign society, boost the students’ confidence and easiness communicating in the foreign language.

Division of Labour Mostly vertical

Figure 3 Activity Theoretical Diagram of a Role-Play


The intended learning outcomes for the role-plays are: reinforcing vocabulary and learning new lexical items specific to the domain related to each of the role-plays, acquiring awareness of culturally specific behaviour such as use of register, importance of certain personal information etc., learning about specific cultural aspects of the foreign society (university organization, dif ferent police forces, health service, etc.), boost the student’s confidence and easiness communicating in the foreign language. The community for each role-play consisted of the Irish students and the Italian lecturer, who was also in charge of assessing the module. The other Italian lecturer was sometimes part of the community and in some tasks, the interlocutor of the subject. Particular attention has to be paid to the mediating artefacts. According to Activity Theory, cultural and material artefacts are not neutral when used by the subjects. At the same time artefacts take their significance from the activities they mediate and from the meanings that the subjects attribute them. Some mediating artefacts in the role-play activity are common to the SL® activity system, that is, the computer used by the subject, software, Internet connection, audio hardware, the languages used, both in written and in oral form and the avatar itself. But we have to add to our list of mediating tools all the objects with which the subject interacted during the task. In the case of Virtual Worlds, realia, that is real, authentic material objects, part of the social, material and cultural life or the language of study, have been successfully substituted by scripted objects. Other mediating artefacts were mentioned by the students in the course of their interviews, and were dictionaries or online support. The position of the interlocutor in the activity system was a cause of ref lection for the researcher, who at first felt that the native speakers who were taking part in the role-play could be conceptualized as part of the community. However, when the object of the activity is identified, one can see that the interlocutor’s position is not exactly coinciding with the subject’s. I would argue in this case that the interlocutor can be conceptualized as a tool available to the subject for the completion of the task.

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5.2.1 Preliminary data analysis Activity Theory sees tensions and problems during the unfolding of an activity as a possible ef fect of contradictions that occur in that activity. Contradictions may lead to a shift of focus of the activity and, eventually, to learning. The researcher observed each role-play and analysed the transcription of each session in detail, finding instances of disruption and breakdowns in communication. Sixty-two moments of disruption were observed during the six role-plays; these were grouped into six dif ferent types. A taxonomy is shown in Table 19. Table 19 Types of Disruption in Role-Plays Type of disruption

Number of occurrences

Technical breakdown

9

Disruption due to incorrect use of the software

1

Comprehension problems

26

Choice of incorrect term/phrase

12

Poor lexical competence

9

Use of wrong register

5

The highest number of disruptions was observed in communication. Such moments of tension were caused either by poor language competence or by poor intercultural awareness on the part of the subject; the researcher identified four general types of disruption that triggered either a clear breakdown in communication or a discontinuation in the f low of communication; comprehension problems, choice of an incorrect term/ phrase, poor lexical competence and use of wrong register. These tensions and disruptions in communication were managed using dif ferent strategies on the part of the interlocutors and, sometimes, resorting to other members of the group. Attention was focused mainly on moments that created a potential for the development of intercultural awareness. Here are a few examples.

Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem? 281 Episode A: At the bank, B wants to open a bank account. The bank employee, M, asks: ‘Ha una busta paga?’ [Do you have a pay slip?]. B fails to recognize the words ‘busta paga’ and replies: ‘Scusa?’ [Sorry?] M repeats: ‘Ha una busta paga?’ and elaborates: ‘Per aprire un conto deve avere una busta paga, cioè deve avere un lavoro e uno stipendio’ [In order to open a bank account you must have a pay slip. You have to have a job and an income]. B understands: ‘Ah, ok, ok, is, sì, ce l’ho’ [Yes yes, I have it].

In Episode A, the disruption in communication brings to the interlocutor to deal with the problem by providing cultural information about a common practice. Episode B: A is at the university. He approaches the employee at the orientation/information of fice and says: ‘Ciao’ (informal way of saying ‘Hello’) An, the employee, answers using the correct form: ‘Buonasera, posso aiutarLa?’ [Hello, can I help you?] A continues the interaction using the correct form: ‘Buonasera’.

In Episode B the disruption is caused by poor intercultural competence on the part of the student, who is not using the correct register and addresses the university employee informally. The interlocutor provides the correct form in his reply and the student takes it on board, changing his approach to formal. It is interesting to note that this episode occurred during the last role-play in the course, after similar episodes had taken place during previous sessions. In all instances, the students had been given the correct form and in one case had even been rebuked by the interlocutor. This, however, had been a problematic area throughout the whole duration of the course. The role-plays had highlighted this weakness and provided many occasions for the students to hear the correct form, and had clearly been useful for at least one of them.

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There were also moments where the role-play activity ‘opened’ to include the entire group, creating the opportunity for a discussion in plenum, which provided cultural information and the chance for comparing the two cultures: Episode C: At the university, S needs to fill in a registration form. She has a problem with the word ‘stato civile’ [marital status] and Su, the Italian tutor, opens the discussion to the other students and the Italian native speakers. Su: cos’è lo stato civile ragazzi? [What is ‘stato civile’ guys?] A: Curriculum vitae? Su: No. Quello è il curriculum vitae. Stato civile. [No, that is curriculum vitae. ‘Stato civile’] A: Oh, scusi. [Oh, sorry] S: Chi lo sa? [Who knows?] […] Su: Che stato civile … che stati civili ci sono in questo gruppo qua? Siamo tutte nubili? [What ‘stati civili’ do we have in this group? Are we all single?] M: Credo di sì [I think so] […] B: Ah! Single o married. Su: Esatto. Sì. [Exactly, yes] M: Sì [Yes] Su: Quindi, come sei Suzanne? Che stato civile hai? [So Suzanne, what is your marital status?] S: singolo [Single] Su: Misy, ora si dice singola anche in italiano? Non si usa più nubile, vero? [Misy, do we say single in Italian, too now? We don’t use ‘nubile’ anymore, do we?] M: Mah, veramente se non sei stato sposato è nubile, se sei stato sposato e divorziato, invece, trovi single. [Actually, if you haven’t been married you are ‘nubile’, if you have and have divorced, you find the word ‘single’] […] S: Va bene [fine] Su: E per Barefoot e Agaw, invece, celibe (writes it in text chat), ok? [And for Barefoot and Agaw, instead, ‘celibe’, ok?] A: Sì [Yes] B: Sì [Yes]


In the case of Episode C, the disruption was handled by the interlocutor by changing its status and becoming part of the community in the activity, involving the other Irish students and the Italian native speakers. The individual action becomes a group action and an activity per se, and the role-play becomes a first step to getting more acquainted with the Italian culture. A more in-depth analysis of the role-play activities will shed more light on what occurs during these tasks and provide examples of best practice.

6 Conclusion An initial conclusion resulting from the experience achieved during this course is that VWs of fer a wealth of potential that can be exploited by teachers to create tasks for the development of intercultural awareness. First and foremost, this multi-cultural environment provides access to a large number of communities and, more importantly, of native speakers. The availability of Italian native speakers was indeed one of the strong points of the course, as they provided an authenticity to the task that cannot be attained in a standard classroom situation. The mediation supplied by the Italian native speakers was also a source of language related problems, especially for the weaker student in the group, who, however, was very positive about the overall experience, during his final interview. Another useful af fordance of SL® is the possibility to use or create a whole environment, which can make the setting look very realistic. The use of scripted objects, reproductions of Italian documents, forms and other objects had a central role in the sessions. Students were moving in realistic surroundings, interacting with realistic looking objects and with native speakers. An initial observation of the role-play as an activity system, allowed the researcher to observe the task in detail, describe it and highlight moments of disruption in the activity. As it was mentioned before, an activity theoretical

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look at reality sees moments of disruption in the activity as a potential for change and for possible development. The scope of the study was to observe how useful the various tasks designed for the sessions could be for the development of Intercultural Awareness and in several occasions it was noticed that a disruption in communication during a role-play created the potential for a moment of intercultural awareness. Sometimes, these disruptions caused an ‘opening’ of the question to the group, shifting the individual action to a group action, and creating an interesting pedagogical moment. Such moments were led by the lecturer, proving the usefulness of guided interaction supported by a teacher even in these environments.

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Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem? 285 Coleman, J.A. (2008). ‘Evolving Intercultural Perceptions among University Language Learners in Europe’. In Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds), Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective 45–75. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dickey, M.D. (2005). ‘Three-Dimensional Virtual Worlds and Distance E-learning: Two Case Studies of Active Worlds as a Medium for Distance Education’, British Journal of Educational Technology 36(2), 439–51. Diehl, W.C. and Prins, E.S. (2008). ‘Unintended Outcomes in Second Life: Intercultural Literacy and Cultural Identity in a Virtual World’, Language and Intercultural Communication 2(2), 101–18. Engeström, Y. (1999). ‘Activity Theory and Individual and Social Transformation’. In Engeström, Y. Miettinen, R. and Punamäki, R. (eds), Perspectives on Activity Theory, 19–38. Cambidge: CUP, 1999. Engeström, Y. (2004). ‘Tecnologia, Reti, Apprendimento. Intervista a Yrio Engeström’, Webmagazine sulla formazione, 4(27), 1–4, accessed 15 July 2010. Heyward, M. (2002). ‘From International to Intercultural: Redefining the International School for a Globalized World’, Journal of Research in International Education, 1(9), 9–32. Ikegami, E. and Hut, P. (2008). ‘Avatars Are For Real: Virtual Communities and Public Spheres’, Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 1(1), 1–19, accessed 2 July 2010. Jennings, N. and Collins, C. (2008). ‘Virtual or virtually U: Educational institutions in Second Life’, International Journal of Social Sciences, 2, 180–6. Kelton, A.J. (2007). ‘Second Life: Reaching into the Virtual World for Real-World Learning’, EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research: Research Bullettin, 17, accessed 4 July 2010. Kim, Y.Y. (2001). Becoming Intercultural. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications. Kjartansson, R.and Skopinskaja, L. (2003). Incorporating Intercultural Communicative Competence in Language Teacher Education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (1998). ‘The Privilege of the Intercultural Speaker’. In Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds), Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective: Approaches through Drama and Etnography 16–31. Cambridge: CUP. Kramsch, C. and Thorne, S.L. (2001). ‘Foreign Language Learning as Global Communicative Practice’, accessed 29 July 2010.

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Lantolf, J.P. and Thorne, S.L. (2006). Socio-cultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lee, M.J.W. (2009). ‘How Can 3d Virtual Worlds Be Used To Support Collaborative Learning? An Analysis of Cases from the Literature’, Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 5(1), 149–58. Lim, K.Y.T. (2009). ‘The Six Learning of Second Life: A Framework for Designing Curricular Interventions in-World’, Journal of Virtual World Research, 2(1), accessed 3 May 2010. Marx, K. (1969). ‘Thesen über Feuerbach’. In Marx-Engels Werke, Band 3, Berlin: Dietz Verlag, accessed 31 June 2010. Müller-Hartmann, A. (2000). ‘The role of Tasks in Promoting Intercultural Learning in Electronic Learning Networks’ Language Learning and Technology, 4(2), 129–47. Ondrejka, C. (2005). ‘Changing Realities. User Creation, Communication, and Innovation in Digital Worlds’, Social Science Research Network, accessed 15 July 2010. Peña, J., Hancock, J.T. and Merola, N.A. (2009). ‘The Priming Ef fects of Avatars in Virtual Settings’, Communication Research, 36(6), 838–56. Riva, G. (2007). ‘Cyberpsicologia. Ambienti Virtuali, Emozioni Reali’, Psicologia Contemporanea, 201(3), 18–23, accessed 8 September 2010. Riva, G., Mantovani, F., Capidevville, C.S., Preziosa, A., Morganti, F., Villani, D., Gaggioli, A., Botella, C. and Alcaniz, M. (2007). ‘Af fective Interactions Using Virtual Reality: The Link between Presence and Emotions’, CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10(1), 45–56. Riva, G., Waterworth, J.A., Waterworth, E.L. and Mantovani, F. (2009). ‘From Intention to Action: the Role of Presence’ New Ideas in Psychology, 3, 1–14. Sercu, L. and De Wachter, L. (2006). ‘Learning Culture and Vocabulary from Reading Texts. Does Task Instruction Make a Dif ference?’ In Clarebout, G. and Elen, J. (eds), Avoiding Simplicity, Confronting Complexity: Advances in Studying and Designing (computer-based) Powerful Learning Environments, 309–18. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Schneider, J. and von der Emde, S. (2006). ‘Conf licts in Cyberspace: From Communication Breakdown to Intercultural Dialogue in Online Collaborations’. In Belz, J.A. and Thorne, S.T. (eds), Internet-Mediated Intercultural Foreign Language Education, 178–206. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.

Can a Virtual World Help Me Learn How to Deal with a Real Life Problem? 287 Svensson, P. (2003). ‘Virtual Worlds as Arenas for Language Learning’. In Felix, U. (ed.), Language Learning Online: Towards Best Practice, 123–44. The Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger. Talamo, A. and Ligorio, B. (2003). ‘Strategic Identities in Cyberspace’, CyberPsychology and Behavior, 4(1), 109–22. Thorne, S.L. (2003). ‘Artifacts and Cultures-of-Use in Intercultural Communication’, Language Learning and Technology, 7(2), 38–67. Thorne, S.L. (2005). ‘Internet-Mediated Intercultural Foreign Language Education: Approaches, Pedagogy, and Research’, CALPER Working Paper, 6. Turbee, C.L. (1999) ‘Language Learning, Moo Theory and Practical Applications’, TESOL accessed 13 August 2010. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press. von der Emde, S., Schneider, J. and Kötter, M. (2001). ‘Technically Speaking: Transforming Language Learning through Virtual Learning Environments (MOOs)’, The Modern Language Journal, 85(2), 210–55. Warschauer, M. (1997). ‘Computer-mediated Collaborative Learning’, Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 470–81. Yee, N., Bailenson, J., Urbanek, M., Chang, F. and Merget, D. (2007). ‘The Unbearable Likeness of Being Digital: The Persistence on Nonverbal Social Norms in Online Virtual Environments’, CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10(1), 115–21. Zarate, G. (1999). ‘Europe without Borders: Designing new Cross Discipline Relations in Language Teaching’. In Chambers, A. and Ó Baoill, D. (eds), Intercultural Communication and Language Learning, 3–15. Dublin: IRAAL.

Part Four

Intercultural Issues


Social Media and the Acquisition of Intercultural Communicative Competence: A Focus on Discussion Forums

We should never denigrate any other culture but rather help people to understand the relationship between their own culture and the dominant culture. When you understand another culture or language, it does not mean that you have to lose your own culture. — Edward T. Hall

1 Introduction In the last few months, several European leaders1 have claimed that their respective policies of multiculturalism have failed and thus have opened a new debate on immigration and cultural integration. This highlights the need to stimulate a deeper understanding between nations or individuals of varied background. Despite many attempts to develop intercultural dialogue in the past this need is still very vivid today. This matter can be addressed in a variety of areas, including the foreign language classroom. As emphasized by the directives of the Council of Europe’s Linguistic Division Policy, language teaching and intercultural citizenship are both related to ‘communication, the promotion of mutual understanding and the development of individual responsibility’ (Lázár et al. 2007: 18). 1

German Chancellor Angela Merkel made this public statement in October 2010. A similar sentiment was echoed by British Prime Minister, David Cameron and French President, Nicolas Sarkozy in February 2011.

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This chapter will demonstrate how sociolinguists have established that language learners cannot become proficient without understanding the culture in which the language they are studying is developed, and how their research has led to a change in the key objectives of language teaching. The evaluation of ‘a person’s ability to relate to and communicate with people who speak a dif ferent language and live in a dif ferent cultural context’ (Byram 1997: 1) is now considered as an essential teaching objective. Furthermore, in line with the technological advances in education, this chapter will raise and discuss a number of issues related to the use of social media in language and intercultural communicative competence teaching, i.e. how technological advances enable users to be active learners through critical ref lection (McLoughlin, Mynard 2009; Wickersham, Dooley 2006) while being part of a learning community (Garrison, Vaughan 2008; Tapscott, Williams 2006). In particular, it will focus on the research related to online discussion forums used for third-level language teaching purposes. Finally, the results from the author’s PhD thesis will be presented. In a first-year course to improve oral skills in French, students participate in discussions on French culture through blended learning. Classroom discussion is supplemented by an online discussion forum with the aim of increasing their intercultural communicative competence.

2 What is Culture and How is it Linked to Language? Halverson (1985) divides the notion of culture into two categories: culture with a ‘big C’ and culture with a ‘little c’. The first represents aspects including literature, arts, history and geography, whereas the second describes aspects which are less perceptible and, until recently, were often unaccounted for in educational curricula. In the second case, culture is considered as a silent language (Furstenberg et al. 2001; Hall 1973) which is invisible (Lo Bianco, Crozet 2003) or hidden like the submerged part of an iceberg (Levine, Adelman 1993). It is important to note that culture is

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not static (Byram 1997). Generally speaking, culture is understood to be ‘the total set of beliefs, attitudes, customs, behaviours, social habits, etc. of the members of a particular society’ (Richards et al. 1992: 94). Byram specifies that behaviours can be verbal or non-verbal (1997). Lado concisely describes culture as ‘the ways of a people’ (1957: 110). Kramsch (1998) insists that it is heterogeneous, in other words, there is a variety of cultures within a community (dif ferent experiences, age, gender, ethnicity, etc). The relationship between language and culture or language and perception is generally associated with the works of Whorf (1956) and Sapir (1970). Their analyses of Native American languages such as Hopi which is known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis conclude that language strongly inf luences perception and behaviour. The most controversial form of the hypothesis claims that the way we perceive things is determined by our native language. According to this hypothesis, translation between very dif ferent languages is impossible. The concept that language determines thought, i.e. linguistic determinism, has been widely criticized by (socio) linguists (Kramsch 1998; Martin 1986; Pinker 1994), and the current trend known as language relativity acknowledges a diluted form of the SapirWhorf hypothesis according to which our native language inf luences to a greater or lesser degree our thoughts, behaviours and perceptions of the world rather than determines them. In other words, language and culture are intertwined: ‘language expresses cultural reality’ (Kramsch 1998: 3). This statement implies that language teachers must also develop a cultural competence in their learners and attempting to omit it would prevent successful language teaching: ‘Since language and culture are inseparable, we cannot be teachers of language without being teachers of culture – or vice versa’ (Byram, Morgan 1994: vii). This is true even from the ab initio language learner level. In brief, languages convey implicit meanings or cultural traits which are shared by the members of the same community (Kramsch 1993). Therefore, being proficient in a language implies more than mastering linguistic features; it also involves understanding the social context in which it is spoken, in other words, cultural competence.

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3 From Linguistic Competence to Intercultural Communicative Competence The concept of cultural competence, which holds that successful communication in a foreign language cannot be attained without understanding the culture in which it is spoken, emerged in the 1980s with the advent of communicative pedagogy (Canale, Swain 1980; Pulverness 2003; van Ek 1986). At the time, language teaching methods shifted from a focus on linguistic competence (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, pronunciation) to communicative competence, i.e. with the aim to develop learners’ ability to communicate appropriately according to various social situations. In later years, this communication pedagogy was criticized (Byram 1997; Kramsch 1993, 1998) because it was based on native speaker language proficiency. It became apparent that the learning objectives were unrealistic and regarded learners in a detrimental way as ‘incomplete native speaker[s]’ (Byram 1997: 11). Instead, researchers and sociolinguists (Bennett 1993; Byram 1992, 1997, 2008; Byram et al. 2002: Corbett 2003; Deardorf f 2006a, 2006b, 2009a; Kramsch 1993, 1995, 1998; Lázár et al. 2007; Zarate 1995, Zarate et al. 2004) suggest redefining the foreign language teaching objectives to develop intercultural communicative competence. Indeed, the current world is characterized by a highly mobile society in which people are constantly interacting within new cultures. Buttjes (1991: 9) claims that ‘at a time of increasing international dependency and imminent global threats’ understanding and respecting other people’s beliefs and attitudes is a priority. Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) aims at bringing learners to ‘see and manage the relationships between themselves and their own cultural beliefs, behaviours and meanings, as expressed in a foreign language, and those of their interlocutor’s, expressed in the same language – or even a combination of languages’ (Byram 1997: 12). As a result, experts in the domain of ICC, including Byram and Zarate, worked in cooperation with other researchers and the Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe to establish a standardized foreign language teaching and learning model. Their work contributed to the creation of the Common European


Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL) (Council of Europe 2001): a scheme defining levels of proficiency in languages including levels of socio-cultural competence, which has now become a standard in Europe. This framework clearly states the need for developing plurilingualism in language educational environments: The plurilingual approach emphasises the fact that as an individual person’s experience of language in its cultural contexts expands, from the language of the home to that of society at large and then to the languages of other peoples […] in dif ferent situations, a person can call f lexibly upon dif ferent parts of this competence to achieve ef fective communication with a particular interlocutor. (2001: 4–5)

4 Model of Intercultural Communicative Competence The variety of terms that arose to describe the concept of ICC is a testimony to the amount of work carried out in the area and underlines the complexity of the notion: ‘cross-cultural competence’, ‘intercultural competence’, ‘socio-cultural competence’, ‘plurilingual competence’, ‘trans-cultural competence’, ‘critical cultural awareness’, ‘multicultural competence’ and ‘intercultural sensitivity’, to name but a few. As a result, definitions may vary. This section provides a definition of ICC in an educational context as understood by the author. To begin with, it is believed that intercultural communicative speakers or mediators have reached an ideal ‘third place’ (Kramsch 1993) in which they can ‘take both an insider’s and outsider’s view on C1 and C2’ (Ibid: 210), i.e. on their own culture and on the target culture. Their competence is composed of five savoirs: ‘savoir comprendre, savoirs, savoir être, savoir s’engager, savoir apprendre/faire’ (Byram 1997: 34). These five savoirs involve four elements: knowledge, attitude and two skills. The first two factors – attitudes and knowledge – are preconditions for an intercultural interaction to take place while the two skills listed are necessary aptitudes (Byram et al. 2002).

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Intercultural mediators avail of a combination of their knowledge, positive attitude, and skills to maintain relations with individuals from other social and cultural groups. Byram (1997) and Deardorf f (2006a, 2006b, 2008) identify two types of knowledge. Firstly, when individuals are engaging in an interaction, they bring their personal knowledge of their own culture or social group as well as knowledge about the culture of their interlocutor’s. Regarding attitudes, intercultural mediators need to be curious, open and ready to question their values or adopt the viewpoint of their interlocutors. According to Byram (1997), skills are a way to complement the knowledge held by intercultural mediators: the ‘skill of interpreting and relating’ and the ‘skill of discovery and interaction’. In addition, Deardorf f (2008) considers that an intercultural mediator should possess key analytical and critical skills (listen, observe, evaluate, analyse, interpret and relate). Moreover, the lifelong ICC acquisition process develops both an internal and external outcome (Deardorf f 2006b, 2008). As the name conveys, the internal outcome represents the internal changes or the ‘shift in frame of reference’ (2006b: 255) occurring within the individuals who become interculturally competent and comprises qualities of adaptability, f lexibility, ethnorelative view and empathy. To exercise empathy, Deardorf f recommends that individuals apply the ‘platinum rule’, i.e. behaving with others as they would like, as opposed to the ‘golden rule’ which implies behaving with others as you would like (2008: 39). In other words, to be willing to understand the other rather than willing to be understood first and only is essential. The external outcome concerns the capacity to behave and communicate ef fectively and appropriately in an intercultural situation. Finally, it is important to note that in this chapter the author makes a distinction between ‘intercultural competence’ and ‘intercultural communicative competence’. The former depicts individuals who bring into play the knowledge, attitude and skills described above when interacting in their native language with people of other cultures, whereas the latter designates mediators who are able to communicate with dif ferent social groups in a foreign language (Byram, Fleming, 1998).


5 Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence Thinking about assessing ICC is important and must be planned carefully. It is firstly essential to decide on a clear definition of the actual concept and secondly to think about the conceptualization of the evaluation method(s), i.e. to determine which component(s) of ICC will be measured (Deardorf f 2009b; Fantini 2009). Also, the assessment must be closely linked to the learning objectives, the curriculum design and its implementation (Fantini 2009).2

6 Intercultural Communicative Competence and CALL Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) which Levy defines as ‘the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning’ (1997: 1) has evolved significantly since the early years. The pedagogy focus changed relatively at the same pace as the technology progressed. The 1960s–1970s were characterized by a behaviouristic drill-and-practice-based approach which concentrated on vocabulary and grammar. Language learners in the 1980s experienced a shift in teaching methods with the emergence of communicative CALL. This change was accompanied by the arrival of the microcomputer. But a significant revolution occurred in the 1990s with the apparition of the Internet. This technological innovation enabled human to human interaction as opposed to human to computer interaction. The Internet linked language teachers and learners from around the world and allowed for more authentic learning contexts. In 1993, Helmut Brammerts initiated the international e-mail 2

Further discussion on assessing ICC is beyond the scope of this chapter but readers may find the following references of great value: Byram 1997; Byram et al. 2002, 2004; Deardorf f 2009a, 2009b; Lázár et al. 2007; and Levy 2007.

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tandem network, and in 1994, the Carnegie Mellon University launched the Oral Language Archive (OLA) which stores sound recording for foreign language learning. Since the 2000s, CALL has been further democratized with the multiplication of freely available virtual learning environments such as Moodle, and the easiness of use of Web 2.0 tools which do not require expertise in computer programming (podcast, chat room, videoconferencing, discussion forum, blog, wiki, etc). All of these tools which were not primarily designed for language teaching use have the potential to enhance language learning in general and the learning of intercultural communicative competence in particular. In the recent years, research projects to develop the intercultural sensitivity of third-level education students with Web 2.0 tools have emerged. Two studies can serve to illustrate this technological revolution and include the use of discussion forums: 1. In 1999–2000, Hanna and de Nooy (2003, 2009) conducted a case study where undergraduate students of French from of the University of Queensland were asked to participate in public discussion forums in order to enhance their argumentative skills in the target language, as these skills are generally highly valued in French culture. Both authors did preparatory work before letting the students engage in forum discussions. Students firstly sensitized themselves to the forums conventions and then ref lected on what strategies to use to present themselves. Finally they carefully chose a pseudonym meaningful to them and started their assignment. This study provided opportunities for developing ICC and the discussion forum features proved to be beneficial as participants could negotiate meaning with native speakers. 2. The Cultura project (Furstenberg et al. 2001) was conducted between the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Institut National des Télécommunications (INT) during the spring and autumn semesters of 1999. The principle was to analyse the process which the students of both institutions went through to compare their respective cultures and see the world in a dif ferent perspective.


A blended learning approach was adopted, that is, a combination of activities online and on a face-to-face basis, usually in class. At the beginning of the project, students of both institutions filled in a series of Web-based questionnaires; the aim was to discover cultural dif ferences and similarities of each culture. After completing the questionnaires, the participants analysed in their own time at home the results of the questionnaire or discussed them in class with their respective teachers. Further ref lection and discussions were then carried out via online forum exchanges with students from both institutions, and finally in the classroom. These two studies show that discussion forums may be used to develop ICC successfully. It seems that the asynchronous feature of online forums help strengthen users’ ref lective skills – a key feature of ICC.

7 Deep Learning and Communities of Practice Despite technical challenges occurring at times, social media are increasingly used for the teaching of ICC as they may develop users’ critical thinking ability which is essential in acquiring ICC awareness. This chapter will now concentrate on the features of online asynchronous discussion forums which allow the building of Communities of Practice (CoPs), and enable beneficial results such as collaborative work and deep learning. Discussion forums enable teachers to engage students actively (Garrison et al. 2000). They provide opportunities for learners to build their own knowledge through ‘socially engaging tasks’ (Cole 2008), namely deep learning. Deep learning can be defined as ‘learning that promotes the development of conditionalized knowledge and metacognition through communities of inquiry’ (Weigel 2002: 5). Indeed, the depth education model is composed of three components: 1. ‘conditionalized knowledge’, 2. ‘metacognition’ and 3. ‘communities of inquiry’. The first element describes

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the relevance of ideas and methods in their domain. This infers that the depth educational model enables students to apply their knowledge to various contexts, and therefore to make out a rationale for their use. For example, students of French would learn that there are two ways of addressing people in the romance language – ‘tu’ and ‘vous’ – and that their use is strongly related to the situation or the status of the person with whom the students are interacting. Problem-based learning is considered as a major contributor to ‘conditionalized knowledge’ development as it challenges students to learn actively by solving problems collaboratively under the supervision of their teacher. To go back to our example of students of French, a teacher using problem-based learning would describe several reallife situations (e.g. ‘You are at your family doctor’s practice doing a routine check-up and are engaged in a conversation about your respective summer holiday plans’) and ask the students in an online forum if they should use the term ‘tu’ or ‘vous’ and why. This would enable them to construct their knowledge as opposed to merely being given a list of situations in which ‘tu’ and ‘vous’ are applicable. The second component, ‘metacognition’, relates to the students’ aptitude to ref lect on their own learning experience and develop their autonomy as learners: ‘the development of critical thinking skills and the ability to articulate and ref lect on ideas are foundational to the art of thinking’ (Weigel 2002: 7). Moreover, students availing of metacognition are thought to be more competent in using learning skills acquired in one area of expertise or another. The third component of the depth education model is ‘communities of inquiry’. They are also referred to as ‘communities of practice’ (Wenger 2009; Wenger et al. 2002) and ‘learning communities’. CoPs are ‘groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly’ (Wenger 2009). CoPs are ubiquitous and are not solely specific to education; they can also be found in organizations, governmental bodies, associations, the social sector and on the Web (Ibid. 2009). They can vary in size (number of members), in geography (local or global), in interaction (face-to-face and/or online) and in formality (formal or informal). CoPs comprise a domain in which the group members share an interest; this makes a distinction between the members and other persons. In addition,


CoPs are characterized by collective learning which is made possible via relationship building (the community) and unrelenting interaction (the practice). Examples of activities developed by the practitioners of a CoP are: problem solving, information requests, experience seeking, coordination and synergy. In an educational context, communities of practice are key factors of deep learning or ‘high-order learning’ (Garrison, Anderson: 2003). They are composed of teachers and students who interact in order to generate critical thinking, construct and confirm understanding. Garrison and Anderson (2003) and Garrison and Vaughan (2008) have elaborated a framework which depicts the three elements which constitute a CoP: ‘cognitive presence’, ‘social presence’ and ‘teaching presence’. These elements will be illustrated below by examples from the discussion forum referred to in the introduction. This forum was provided by Sulis – the University of Limerick’s virtual learning environment – in order to establish a CoP, facilitate deep learning and develop students’ awareness of intercultural communicative competence. Cognitive presence is a vital component of critical thinking and deep learning. It describes the degree of the students’ ability to build and validate meaning via continuous ref lection and interaction. Cognitive presence is created with the use of triggering events which aim at puzzling the learners and sparking reaction from them. For example, in the first-year discussion forum, the following instructions were given to the participants: Observez le document. Que représente chaque image? Pensez-vous que cette représentation des Français est juste? [Observe the document [The document depicted five stereotypes of French people]. What does each image symbolize? Do you believe they give an accurate representation of French people?] – Extract from teacher’s posting, 29 September 2008

It is also obtained with ‘exploration’, ‘integration’ and ‘resolution’. This means that students seek and exchange information in order to understand an issue, are able to link dif ferent ideas together and apply them to new ones. Asynchronous text-based tools, e.g. discussion forums, are believed

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to enable students to become deep learners as they provide time for ref lection – time before writing a contribution and time to read a posting before replying, for example (Richardson 2006). The second element, social presence, refers to the members’ ability to portray their true personality to the other participants via the tool selected for the exercise. It helps to support cognitive presence by creating a friendly environment. Social presence is noticeable through emoticons, for example, which show emotional expression. In the first-year discussion forum, the following messages were posted: Je m’appelle [nom de l’étudiante]. J’habite à Clare. J J’ai dix sept ans! Je suis un etudiante de Law and Euro studies. Jaime le foot Gaélique et le musique, surtout U2! J [My name is [name of student]. I live in Clare. J I am 17! I study Law and Euro Studies. I like Gaelic football and music, U2 J in particular!] – Extract from student’s posting, 3 October 2008

Social presence can also be manifested by risk-free expression and signs encouraging collaboration. These demonstrate that a sense of trust has been established making open communication and group cohesion possible, even when the participants’ viewpoints dif fer: Je vois que je suis le seul sur cela qui ne doit pas être un membre de bebo!! Je déteste le réseau social. Je crois que c’est addictif et un gaspillage de temps! Je vis dans le monde réel!! Mais aucune n’of fense, évidemment! J Je crois que cela peut être dangereux! [I think that I am the only one who is not a bebo member!! I hate social networks. I think that they are addictive and a waste of time! I prefer to live in the real world!! But I do not want to of fend anyone, of course! J I think they can be dangerous!] – Extract from student’s posting, 24 November 2008

The third element which constitutes a CoP is teaching presence. The latter relates to the functions under the responsibility of the teacher even though some functions can be held by other participants at times. The functions include ‘the design, facilitation and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes’ (Garrison, Anderson 2003: 29). In other words, it is linked to managing the environment before and during the


learning process. Typical functions are ‘design and organisation’, ‘facilitating discourse’ and ‘direct instruction’, as seen in the following posts to the first-year discussion forum: Bonjour à tous! Cette semaine, je propose que l’on se présente afin de faire connaissance. Postez votre message en cliquant sur ‘Post Reply’. N‘oubliez-pas de mettre une photo ou un avatar en allant sur ‘My Profile’. [Hi everyone! This week, I invite you to introduce yourself to the class. Post your message by clicking ‘Post Reply’. Do not forget to upload your photo or avatar on the ‘My Profile’ page.] – Extract from teacher’s posting, 2 October 2008

8 Study and Results The study involved introducing an online discussion forum in a first-year French class to encourage the development of ICC. As shown earlier in this chapter, a number of projects aiming at introducing ICC facilitate interaction between language learners and native speakers from a dif ferent institution. The study presented in this chapter was developed in a standard language class setting, in other words, the situation faced by the majority of language learners. Participants were composed of mainly Irish students with a minority of foreign students and a native French teacher. The three main study objectives were: 1. Investigate how discussion forums can enhance the teaching and learning of ICC awareness. 2. Integrate resources in French language classes and evaluate learners’ reaction and interactions within the new learning environment. 3. Analyse outcomes in comparison to related research.

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Florence Le Baron-Earle Table 20 Project Details

Number of students

64 students during Semester 1 55 students during Semester 2

Number of groups

Three during Semester 1 (One per class of circa twenty students) Four during Semester 2 (One per class of circa fifteen students) Only students of the same class group could see the work of others

Duration of project

Two semesters composed of twelve weeks, academic year 2008–2009

Instructions

Respond to trigger question or statement about French culture in target language, use personal knowledge or information from the newspaper article studied in class, and take into consideration previous messages posted by other participants.

Student roles

Participant, post trigger or start a thread, read and react to trigger, react to previous post, add and share information, summarize and/or conclude discussion.

Teacher roles

Participant-observer, give guidelines (tasks, netiquette), post trigger or start a thread, moderate, comment, encourage, send feedback, provide technical support, assess work.

The results of the project were evaluated through three student questionnaires (one at the end of each semester and one six months after the end of the study), two semi-directed interviews (one at the end of each semester) which were recorded and later transcribed and teacher’s observations. The latter comprises a narrative diary kept throughout the project giving details of participants’ activity in the discussion forum, personal ref lections and the content of an informal talk with students about the forum. The first two questionnaires were completed by students immediately at the end of each semester in order to collect the participants’ fresh impressions. The third questionnaire gathered comments from participants with more perspective on the project and could compare their experience of using a discussion forum (Semesters one and two) with their experience of not using a discussion forum (Semester three). The third questionnaire also provided a summary of results gathered by the researcher and asked the participants to comment on them. All three questionnaires included


open-ended, close-ended and multiple choice type questions. Other data gathered in the project include the individual and group e-mails exchanged with students, messages posted in the forum and statistical measurement about students’ participation and activity. The participants’ response to the questionnaires was satisfactory: 86 per cent of students completed the first questionnaire, 69 per cent completed the second one and 42 per cent completed the third one. Five students participated in the first semidirected interview and seven took part in the second one. Results show that students were computer literate for the vast majority as shown in data collected from the first online questionnaire: 100 per cent of students had used the Internet and 96 per cent were social networking sites users. They found that their knowledge of French culture improved throughout the study: before the project started, 2 per cent of students considered their knowledge very poor, 36 per cent of students considered it poor, 59 per cent found it good and a low 2 per cent evaluated it as very good. At the end of the project, 50 per cent believed it to be good and 50 per cent very good. Student comments made in the questionnaires and the semi-directed interviews included a larger number of positive remarks than negative ones regarding the use of discussion forums for ICC. Students felt that their knowledge of French culture improved: 4 per cent found the discussion forum extremely helpful in improving their cultural competence in French, 33 per cent found it very helpful, 36.5 per cent found it helpful, 11 per cent found it a little helpful and 4 per cent found it not at all helpful. Finally, 11.5 per cent admitted not using the forum. Participants’ comments included:3 ‘Using a discussion forum allows you to interact with fellow students and see their ideas and interact thoughts and knowledge.’ ‘[I] Probably did not participate enough for it to be helpful.’ ‘I found it a good and modern way of learning but I didn’t necessarily learn a lot about France from it.’

3

For the quotations given below, positive and negative comments were chosen to illustrate all participants’ viewpoints.

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In addition, 12 per cent of the participants surveyed strongly agreed with the statement that ‘cultural ref lection has also enabled them to learn about [their] own culture’, 79 per cent agreed, 9 per cent did not: ‘Yes because it makes you think about aspects of another culture and then relate it to your own.’ ‘It helps in terms of making comparisons with your own culture. It is an eyeopener.’

At the end of Semester 3, the semester during which students were not using a discussion forum, participants were asked how they reacted when they were told that no discussion forum would be used: 50 per cent said that they would have like to keep using it, 29 per cent said that they were relieved and 21 per cent said that it made no dif ference to them. Students commented: ‘I found that there was definitely something missing in the oral classes this year. I enjoyed first year’s classes much more […] I feel that I am not learning a lot in my oral class this semester.’ ‘Although I enjoyed the online activities in first year, the workload in all of my subjects this semester was very heavy and therefore I was slightly relieved that we would not be continuing with the activities this year, as it reduced some of this pressure.’ ‘If given a choice I would have chosen to continue with it. However, I was not unduly upset by its removal.’

Numerous comments showed that the open feature of the tool was appreciated for it enabled content sharing in a comfortable setting. Students were asked to comment freely about the discussion forum. Responses include the following: ‘Using a discussion forum allows you to interact with fellow students and see their ideas and interact thought and knowledge.’ ‘The discussion forum has made me more confident […] I enjoy the fact that it is a more relaxed way of practising French than homework or tests.’ ‘You get to see other people’s perspective on cultures and learn things you previously had little or no knowledge of.’


Teacher observation also highlighted that the introduction of the discussion forum had an encouraging ef fect. For example, most students who had low in-class attendance did participate in the online forum and students of a shy nature in class were very active online. This was confirmed by comments made by participants in the questionnaires and in the semidirected interviews. A typical example is given below: ‘I loved the discussion forum as it allowed everyone to contribute and let you see what your classmates thought and it was less daunting [sic] than speaking in front of a class of strangers.’

Also, students took dif ferent roles and did not merely add their post to the thread; they also commented on each other’s messages and shared/ learned new information. For instance, a student would start a message by acknowledging what had been previously written in the thread: ‘Comme les autre étudiants je ne suis pas d’accord avec…’ [Like the other students, I disagree with…] ‘Je vois que je suis le seul à…’ [I see that I am the only one to…]

Finally, students were highly motivated in the project and took time to work outside classroom time. Indeed, with the exception of one week where the teacher organized a ‘hands-on’ computer lab session with the students, messages written by the participants were posted in their own time. An average of seventeen messages was posted every week during the first semester and six during the second semester. It is interesting to note that a number of reservations were made regarding the use of the discussion forum. Firstly, the online participation decreased quite significantly between Semester 1 and Semester 2. This can be explained in part by the fact that several students (15 per cent) dropped out of the first-year French module. In comparison, 22 per cent and 15 per cent students dropped the modules the two previous academic years when the discussion forum was not part of the module. Students explained this drop in participation by an increased workload from other modules, the fact that the novelty wore out and, more specifically, that more marks

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were awarded to their online participation in the first semester. This shows that students are highly strategic learners. Despite their acknowledgment that the online discussions were beneficial to them, the amount of marks awarded remained a significant incentive to their participation. As anticipated by the teacher, technical dif ficulties were a hindrance for a small proportion of participants and, therefore, a training session was organized at the beginning of the project. In addition to this session, custom-made instructions (how to post a message, how to attach a document, etc.) were made available online for participants. According to 86 per cent of the students polled, the computer lab session was very useful. It not only gave them more confidence using the virtual learning environment and its tools, such as the discussion forum, but also reinforced their understanding of the forum’s objectives. A small 8 per cent did not find it useful and 6 per cent remained neutral. Students who answered ‘no’ or remained neutral commented that they did not attend the training session for various reasons or did attend but would have liked more than one session. A summary of additional comments made by students in the questionnaires and semi-directed interviews is provided in Table 21.

9 Evidence of Deep Learning in the Study As outlined in the literature review section, deep learning is composed of three fundamental elements: 1. ‘conditionalized knowledge’ or the learners’ ability to build-up new knowledge and relate it to previous knowledge, 2. ‘metacognition’ or the participants’ aptitude to think critically and ref lect on their learning and 3. ‘communities of inquiry’, which is the context in which learning occurs. Evidence of these was found in the students’ online interaction and comments (Table 22, p. 310).

Social Media and the Acquisition of Intercultural Communicative Competence 309 Table 21 Summary of Students’ Comments ‘Quick and easy to access’

Advantages of discussion forum

Comments on f lexibility and easiness of use

Comments on novelty and fun aspect

‘It’s a fun way of studying!’ ‘It’s dif ferent and it’s a more enjoyable way to learn’. ‘It gives you a chance to learn from others in the class and it gets you thinking more’.

Comments on interaction and group work

‘I feel that interacting online with others is far better than sitting down and […] just listening to it in a lecture. It encouraged me to participate more’. ‘We can read each other’s comments and share knowledge’.

Comments on dynamic and general work atmosphere

Disadvantages of discussion forum

‘The Internet allows people to communicate easily and quickly with each other, from wherever you are. […] I found it very useful’.

Comments on dif ficulty of use

‘It makes it more interesting and accessible and is less daunting that having to stand up and speak in front of a group’. [It] provide[s] the student with a more relaxed and interesting setting in which to learn about culture than the average classroom situation can provide’. ‘For people who are not very computer literate, such as myself, it is dif ficult and time-consuming to complete such activities’. ‘Information given can be just one person’s opinion. It doesn’t always give accurate information’.

Comments on content

‘Anyone can write anything they want, and it may not be accurate. This can lead to confusion among students’.

Comments on user role and involvement

‘It takes time’. ‘You might not understand the instructions’.

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Table 22 Students’ Comments on How the Discussion Forum Made Them Learn about French Culture 1. Conditionalized knowledge

Evidence of deep learning in the study

2. Metacognition

‘I loved it. It gave you the opportunity to build up what other people had said and get new ideas […] it helped to keep it fresh in your head’. ‘We kind of take it in much better than if we were you know told to go away and read a book. We learn all the aspects, the cultural aspects but you are just kind of passively taking it in whereas [with the forum] you think about it yourself ’. I thought it was good, cos [sic] it gave you time to think about, if you didn’t know things, and if you didn’t know what they were talking about in class, It made you learn’. ‘It made you interact as well, and you got to see as well what other people thought.’ ‘It was a very informal environment’.

‘Yeah I really liked the class discussions […] because we have two Erasmus students each from Spain, so like they say how it is in Spain and then there is us like the Irish people and then obviously [our teacher] is a French person […] dif ferent people have such dif ferent ideas and like a load of people in our class 3. Community of inquiry have been to France so like they have observed while they were there, it was really interesting’. ‘I thought it was helpful to read over what the other students wrote because you could see the standard of the French and because they are in your class that is the standard you should have. Instead of reading out of a book or something which is very dif ficult’. ‘It is really engaging, you really don’t notice that you are learning stuf f […] it is so interactive’.


The introduction of the discussion forum in the French classroom was in many ways positive and showed evidence of deep learning. The teacher’s main aim of enhancing intercultural competence awareness was attained to some extent and the participants encouraged and supported the future use of the discussion forum. However, in order to improve the project, some challenges still need to be overcome regarding the technical competence of some students and their belief that intercultural competence benefits language learning. Indeed, one student wrote: ‘I have yet to really convince myself that knowing more about the French culture will help me to speak French better.’ Moreover, the teacher’s roles need to be examined closely before and during the project. Should the teacher adopt a central role in the conversation or, on the contrary, be almost invisible? In this project, the teacher chose to be a ‘guide on the side’ (Mazzolini, Maddison 2003) in order to let participants construct their knowledge, and this is what happened. However, as some comments on content revealed (Table 21), this approach may mislead students that there is no control on the accuracy of the knowledge created. The teacher’s role is thus an issue that has to be considered carefully.

10 Conclusion Through the years, as far back as the 1970s, studies have highlighted the importance of culture in the language classroom. Similarly, interest in modern technologies in education has grown apace: practices in the classroom have evolved significantly from the beginning of CALL to today’s Network-Based Language Teaching (Warshauer, Kern 2000). Current methods enable human to human exchanges – as opposed to the humancomputer interactions of the early days – which make the development of collaborative work and critical thinking possible. It now seems clear that quality in language teaching implies awareness of the cultural component of language use, and that new Web 2.0 tools such as discussion forums do

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make an important contribution to the development of ICC (Hanna, de Nooy 2009; Levy 2007). However, more research is needed in a number of areas, such as, what role the teacher should play and how ICC can be fairly assessed. If these issues are successfully addressed in future research, it seems probable that discussion forums and other Web 2.0 tools will become standard elements in the language teaching environment.

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Victor Bayda


1 Stair Theagasc na Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó Tósaíodh ar theagasc na Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó sa bhliain 1978 nuair a cinneadh i nDámh na Fileolaíochta de chuid na hOllscoile nár mhór léann na dteangacha Ceilteacha a fhorbairt sa Dámh. Tugadh cuireadh do Garry Bannister, iarchéimí Éireannach a bhí i mbun staidéir ar an Rúisis ag an am, Gaeilge a mhúineadh do mhic léinn a raibh suim acu inti. I measc na ndaoine sin bhí Tatyana Mikhailova, an té a thug faoin nGaeilge a theagasc tar éis do Garry Bannister filleadh ar Éirinn. Mar thoradh ar obair Garry Bannister dearadh agus foilsíodh Compléasc Foghlamtha na Gaeilge le haghaidh Cainteoirí Rúiseacha (Bannister 1983) a raibh idir ábhar tagartha agus cleachtaidh ann. Dhear an tOllamh Tatyana Mikhailova ábhar teagaisc (Mikhailova 1990) le téacsanna agus foclóir beag GaeilgeRúisise. Go dtí an bhliain 2001 ní raibh ach an tOllamh Mikhailova ag múineadh na Gaeilge (idir Nua-Ghaeilge agus Shean-Ghaeilge) sa Roinn. Tháinig méadú ar líon na dteagascóirí ó shin, áfach, agus faoi láthair tá triúr léachtóirí buana agus triúr eile páirtaimseartha i mbun theagasc na Gaeilge agus roinnt ábhar eile a bhaineann leis an nGaeilge agus na teangacha Ceilteacha i gcoitinne. Go dtí an bhliain 2010 ní raibh an Ghaeilge ar fáil sa Roinn ach mar ábhar breise roghnach. Má bhí mic léinn ag déanamh cúrsa i mBéarla nó i nGearmáinis nó in aon teanga eile, bhí siad in ann tabhairt faoin nGaeilge freisin. Má thóg na mic léinn na hábhair eile sa chúrsa ‘Léann Ceilteach’ (Sean-Ghaeilge, stair na Gaeilge, cultúr agus litríocht na hÉireann agus teanga Cheilteach eile), bhí teastais ar fáil dóibh ag deireadh an chúrsa. Níor mhic léinn de chuid na Dáimhe amháin a bhí in ann freastal ar an

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gcúrsa, ná go deimhin mic léinn na hollscoile, ach duine ar bith sa chaoi go raibh an Roinn ag feidhmiú mar chineál ionad léinn Cheiltigh do chách. Cúpla fadhb a bhain leis an sórt sin cúrsa ná go raibh sé deacair, scaití, a bheith cinnte cé mhéad duine a bhí ag freastal ar an gcúrsa agus ós rud é gur ábhair bhreise a bhí sna hábhair a luadh thuas, bhí deacrachtaí ann ó thaobh an chlár ama de freisin agus bhí ar na teagascóirí agus na mic léinn amanna a cuardach a bheadh feiliúnach do na mic léinn uile agus do na teagascóirí féin.

2 An Cúrsa sa Lá atá Inniu Ann Tháinig athrú suntasach ar an gcaoi ina n-eagraítear an cúrsa in 2010 nuair a thosaigh, den chéad uair riamh, cúrsa a raibh an Ghaeilge agus an Béarla ina bpríomhábhair ann. Cúrsa lánaimseartha céime cúig bliana atá i gceist agus is iad na hábhair atá á dteagasc le linn an chúrsa seo ná Gaeilge, Béarla, SeanGhaeilge, stair na Gaeilge (idir theangeolaíoch agus shóisialta), litríocht na Gaeilge agus litríocht Angla-Éireannach chomh maith le hábhair ina ndéantar cur síos ar stair na hÉireann agus ar chúrsaí sóisialta an lae inniu. Tá sé de rún ag foireann na Ranna go múinfear ranganna Gaeilge, litríocht na Gaeilge (chlasaiceach agus nua-aimseartha) agus eolas ar Éirinn trí mheán na Gaeilge. Mar is léir ó liosta na n-ábhar seo thuas tagann an cúrsa seo mar chomharba ar an gcúrsa breise a ndearnadh cur síos gairid air thuas. Ní hé go gcuirfear an cúrsa nua in áit an chúrsa bhreise, ach go mbeidh sé bunaithe ar an taithí agus ar na hábhair theagaisc a forbraíodh don seanchúrsa. Tugann stádas nua an chúrsa buntáistí nach beag leis. Ar an gcéad dul síos imíonn an fhadhb le sceidealú ós rud é go ndéanfar comhtháthú na ranganna agus na léachtaí de chuid an chúrsa i bpríomhchlár ama na Dáimhe. Caithfear a lua anseo go bhfuil neart ábhar eile ann a bhfuil ar na mic léinn staidéar a dhéanamh orthu de réir an tsiollabais; is iad seo stair na teanga atá á foghlaim acu, stair litríocht na hEorpa (ón litríocht Chlasaiceach go dtí an litríocht nua-aimseartha), stair litríocht na Rúise, teangeolaíocht, teoiric liteartha, stair na fealsúnachta, Rúisis, an dara


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teanga eachtrannach agus go deimhin ábhair nach bhfuil gaol díreach acu leis an gcúrsa agus a mhúintear ar feadh téarma amháin an ceann – eacnamaíocht, polaitíocht, faisneolaíocht, síceolaíocht agus oideolaíocht, gan trácht ar ranganna aclaíochta sa chéad dá bhliain. Baineann an uilíocht seo le traidisiún oideachasúil ollscolaíochta na Rúise; dá réir caithfear eolas cuimsitheach a thabhairt don mhac léinn sa chaoi go dtabharfadh sé an deis dó/di fís níos leithne a fháil ar a (h)ábhar féin agus ar an réimse níos leithne ábhar ar féidir úsáid a bhaint astu lena c(h)uspóirí proifisiúnta féin a bhaint amach. Rud eile a chaithfear a thabhairt san áireamh ná go gcuirtear níos mó béime ar amanna teagmhála i gcóras oideachais na Rúise, rud a chiallaíonn scaití nach bhfágtar mórán ama ag an mac léinn don fhoghlaim fhéinriartha. Bíonn buntáistí leis sin freisin, áfach, mar gheall go mbíonn níos mó ranganna ar fáil do theagasc na teanga féin. Go ginearálta (i gcás teangacha eile seachas Gaeilge) bíonn sé rang uair an chloig go leith de ranganna teanga sa tseachtain, ach ós rud é nach í an Ghaeilge an t-aon teanga sa chúrsa agus go gcaithfidh sí an méid chéanna ranga a ‘roinnt’ leis an mBéarla, bíonn ceithre rang uair an chloig go leith ar fáil don Ghaeilge. Déantar iarracht freisin uaireanta breise teagmhála a chruthú nuair is féidir.

3 Próifil na Mac Léinn Ní mór anois spléachadh a chaitheamh ar na mic léinn a thugann faoin nGaeilge sa Rúis agus céard iad na fáthanna atá acu leis sin a dhéanamh. Bíonn na mic léinn ag teacht le cúlraí éagsúla sóisialta agus ó chathracha agus ó bhailte móra éagsúla na Rúise. Go deimhin, ní as Moscó ach beirt as an ngrúpa de sheisear atá ag déanamh an chúrsa lánaimseartha. Bíonn teanga eachtrannach amháin ar a laghad ag na mic léinn go hiondúil nuair a thosaíonn siad ag foghlaim Gaeilge, ach is minic a bhíonn níos mó ná teanga amháin acu. Ní deacair tomhas gurb é an Béarla an teanga is minice a bhíonn ag na mic léinn ós rud é go bhfuil an Béarla ina ábhar éigeantach ar an gcuraclam i mbeagnach gach scoil, cé nach ionann caighdeán a mhúinte i chuile scoil, ar ndóigh.

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D’fhonn fáil amach faoi na fáthanna a bhíonn ag na mic léinn tabhairt faoin nGaeilge, seoladh cuireadh chuig mic léinn (idir iar-mhic léinn agus iad sin atá fós ag staidéar san ollscoil) le ceistneoir simplí ar líne a fhreagairt. Cuireadh réimse leathan fáthanna ar fáil agus bhí ar na mic léinn trí cinn acu siúd a roghnú a bhí fíor ina gcás féin. Le deis a thabhairt do na mic léinn fáthanna eile a scríobh seachas fagadh spás do ‘Eile’ ag bun an liosta. Ní raibh d’iallach ar na mic léinn a n-ainmneacha ná aon sonraí pearsanta eile a sheoladh agus iad ag freagairt na gceisteanna. Seoladh an cuireadh chuig 14 agus fritheadh 13 fhreagra. Roghnaigh triúr níos mó ná trí fháth, ach glacadh lena bhfreagraí uilig ós rud é nárbh fhéidir fáil amach cé hiad na daoine sin le hiarraidh orthu é a athdhéanamh, agus chomh maith leis sin, síleadh nach mbeadh tionchar mór ag na freagraí breise sin ar an tátal. Tá na freagraí de réir an méid roghnuithe i bhFigiúir 4.

Figiúir 4 Freagraí na Mac Léinn ar an gCeist ‘Cén fáth ar thug tú faoin nGaeilge?’


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Tá rogha amháin nach bhfuil sa tábla seo thuas ná ‘Tá aithne agam ar dhaoine atá ina gcónaí in Éirinn’ agus is é an fáth nach bhfuil ná mar gheall nár roghnaigh duine ar bith é. Níor scríobh ach triúr fáthanna faoi ‘Eile’ agus fiú sa chás seo is é an rud a bhí i gceist ná míniú áirithe ar na fáthanna a roghnaigh na mic léinn. Uair amháin bhí freagra breise grinn ann. Mar is léir ón tábla seo thuas is í suim i dteangacha i gcoitinne a thagann sa chéad áit i measc na bhfáthanna atá ar an liosta. Is dócha go bhfuil gaol ag an dara fáth leis an gcéad cheann. D’fhéadfaí, áfach, ceist a chur cá gcloisfeadh na mic léinn an Ghaeilge sular thosaigh siad á foghlaim san ollscoil. B’fhéidir go bhfuil an freagra le feiceáil sa tríú fáth eile: suim na mac léinn sa cheol Éireannach agus gur sna hamhráin a chuala siad an teanga. Is léir ón suirbhé seo gurb iad suim theangeolaíoch agus suim sa chultúr Éireannach atá chun tosaigh i measc na bhfáthanna atá ag na mic léinn agus iad ag tabhairt faoi fhoghlaim na Gaeilge. Ag an am céanna níl gaol pearsanta le hÉirinn nó le daoine in Éirinn chomh tábhachtach agus atá sé i dtíortha eile ar nós na Stát Aontaithe, áit arb é ceann de na príomhfháthanna atá ag na foghlaimeoirí le tabhairt faoin nGaeilge ná teagmháil a dhéanamh lena ndúchas Éireannach (Stenson 2000: 108). Is cúis spéise é freisin go bhfuil suim theangeolaíoch chomh hard sin ar an liosta. Léiríonn sé sin go mbíonn spreagadh ag na mic léinn cheana féin nuair a thosaíonn siad ag foghlaim na Gaeilge, spreagadh den chineál is tábhachtaí, b’fhéidir, don chúrsa a mbíonn siad ar tí tabhairt faoi.

4 Cur Chuige Theagasc Teangacha i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó Tá traidisiún láidir theagasc teangacha i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó agus is iomaí cúrsa atá deartha ag foireann Dhámh na Fileolaíochta. Is teagascóirí de bhonn na Rúise iad formhór na foirne ach tagann léachtóirí eachtrannacha nuair a bhíonn sé d’acmhainn ag an roinn áirithe é sin a sholáthar. Tá acmhainní féinteagaisc ar fáil do na mic léinn freisin: tá bailiúcháin leabhar a bhaineann leis na hábhair a mhúintear ag formhór na ranna agus baintear úsáid as áiseanna na teanglainne go rialta.

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Bíonn béim i gcúrsaí teangacha ar an teoiric agus ar an gcruinneas, rud nach gciallaíonn go mbíonn easpa cleachtadh cainte ann: tagann na gnéithe éagsúla sin de chumas teanga go maith le chéile ós rud é go mbíonn líon measartha mór uaireanta teagmhála in aghaidh na seachtaine ar fáil le freastal ar an dá thaobh agus, chomh maith leis sin, cuireann sé leis an muinín má tá daoine cinnte go bhfuil an méid atá á rá acu ceart ó thaobh foirme de. Is fiú a lua go ndírítear ar chúrsaí cultúrtha agus sóisialta na dtíortha agus na bpobal a bhaineann le teanga áirithe le linn an chúrsa freisin. Tá sé mar aidhm, mar sin, eolas uilíoch a thabhairt do na mic léinn ar an earnáil a mbeidh siad ag plé léi, rud a thagann go maith leis an gcur chuige ginearálta i leith an phróisis theagaisc mar a léiríodh thuas é.

5 Cás na Gaeilge Tá an cur chuige i leith theagasc na Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó bunaithe ar na prionsabail chéanna agus a úsáidtear i gcúrsaí na dteangacha eile. Murab ionann agus na teangacha sin, áfach, baineann roinnt deacrachtaí le teagasc na Gaeilge a gcaithfear deileáil leo. Seachas na mionfhadhbanna ar nós go gcaithfear a bheith ag obair le hábhair theagaisc agus thagartha a scríobhadh i mBéarla (teanga eachtrannach do na mic léinn) agus a bhíonn dírithe ar Bhéarlóirí agus ar dhaoine a mbíonn tuiscint acu ar chúrsaí na hÉireann den chuid is mó agus, ar ndóigh, nach gcuirtear riachtanais áirithe na gcainteoirí Rúisise san áireamh iontu, is iad na deacrachtaí is mó, is dócha, ná na cinn a bhaineann le stádas na Gaeilge mar theanga neamhfhorleathan (Ó Murchú 2001) agus le ceist na gcanúintí agus an chaighdeáin. Cuireann an chéad cheann de na fadhbanna sin dúshlán mór roimh na teagascóirí an easpa spreagtha a tharlaíonn tar éis tamaill a shárú. Agus an chéad tonn suime thart is minic a thagann an díspreagadh seo ar na mic léinn leis an tuiscint nach minic is féidir leo úsáid a bhaint as an teanga a bhfuil siad i mbun a foghlama. Cinnte go gcuireann castacht na teanga féin leis na deacrachtaí seo. Is dócha go bhfuil sé sin ar an údar is mó a


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thugadh ar chuid mhór de na mac léinn a d’éirigh as an gcúrsa roghnach an cinneadh seo a dhéanamh. Scéal eile ar fad i gcás mhic léinn an chúrsa lánaimseartha, ar ndóigh, ós rud é gur ceann de phríomhábhair éigeantacha an chúrsa í an Ghaeilge. Ní chiallaíonn sé sin, áfach, gur féidir a bheith cinnte nach mbainfear spreagadh astu de réir a chéile freisin. An rud atá thar a bheith tábhachtach, áfach, ná chuile iarracht a dhéanamh le teacht roimh an díspreagadh. Cén chaoi ar féidir é sin a dhéanamh? Cinnte go gcaithfear úsáid a bhaint as chuile chás agus fhíric a thaispeánann go bhfuil an Ghaeilge á labhairt, gur teanga bheo í, ach ní féidir an fhírinne a cheilt orthu ach oiread, is é sin, cuir i gcás, nach féidir do ghnó laethúil a dhéanamh tríd an teanga seo ach amháin i gceantair áirithe. I bhfocail eile, ní mór pictiúr réadúil a thabhairt do na mic léinn gan iad a dhíspreagadh. Is cosúil gur féidir a leithéid a dhéanamh ach an bhéim a athrú. Má chuirtear an bhéim i gcás theagasc na Gaeilge ar na háiteanna ina bhfuil an teanga á labhairt go laethúil fós, is cuma cé chomh gann agus beag is atá siad agus cé chomh conspóideach is atá cúrsaí na teanga iontu féin (Ó Giollagáin 2007; Ó Curnáin 2009), déantar mórtheanga as an mionteanga leis sin i gcomhthéacs an ranga. Tugann an cur chuige seo deis dúinn éalú ón mínádúrthacht a bhaineann scaití le cúrsaí feidhmeacha na Gaeilge mar gheall gur mór an difríocht atá idir samhlú go bhfuil tú ag baint úsáide as an nGaeilge le bia a ordú i gcaifé, cuir i gcás, i mBaile Átha Cliath agus sa Spidéal. Ceanglaítear an teanga leis an timpeallacht ina n-úsáidtear í. Ní féidir gan trácht a dhéanamh ar dhaoine atá ina gcónaí taobh amuigh de na háiteacha sin ach a bhaineann úsáid as an nGaeilge mar sin féin. Ach is saol eile é sin, limistéar an Bhéarla áit nach bhfuil d’fheidhmeanna ag an nGaeilge ach mar theanga an teaghlaigh, na scoile agus correagrais. Ní bheadh an pictiúr seo iomlán gan trácht a dhéanamh ar úsáid na Gaeilge sna hinstitiúidí tríú leibhéal, rud a thugann deis do na mic léinn a riachtanais acadúla a phlé sa teanga sin. An dara fadhb a luadh thuas ná ceist na gcanúintí agus an chaighdeáin. Is iomaí rud atá ráite ar an ábhar seo ach bíonn sí á plé ó pheirspictíocht chúrsaí oideachais in Éirinn go hiondúil agus is cinnte go mba mhór an buntaiste é caighdeán don Ghaeilge lena foghlaim sna scoileanna ansin. Caithfear glacadh leis, áfach, nach ionann cuspóirí theagascóirí na Gaeilge in Éirinn agus taobh amuigh di, inár gcás – sa Rúis. Ní mór cuimhneamh ar

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riachtanais na mac léinn Rúiseach mar a léiríodh níos luaithe iad. Tá suim acu i gcúrsaí teangeolaíocha na Gaeilge thar rud ar bith eile. Tagann sé sin go maith leis an mbéim ar eolas cruinn domhain uilíoch atá mar chuspóir de réir chur chuige na hollscoile. Ciallaíonn sé seo uilig nach foláir an foghlaimeoir a chur ar an eolas faoi chuile chineál Gaeilge, ar féidir cur síos James McCloskey a lua anseo ina leith: Déantús cultúrtha fíor-aisteach an rud seo a dtugaimid ‘an Ghaeilge’ air. Tá le háireamh i réimse na coincheapa seo: leaganacha áitiúla na mór-Ghaeltachtaí traidisiúnta, agus an éagsúlacht shaibhir a bhaineann leo ó áit go chéile agus ó ghlúin go chéile; an caighdeán, fana chomhréiteach cliste idir na canúintí uilig agus fana chuid téarmaíochta nua-chumtha uilig, cuid acu gránna agus amscaí, cuid acu deachumtha álainn; caithfear a áireamh fosta leaganacha na gcathracha, Baile Átha Cliath agus Béal Feirste, leaganacha, b’fhéidir, nach róchosúil iad le ‘Gaeilge na Gaeltachtaí’ ach a bhfuil neart agus fuinneamh dá gcuid féin iontu. Tá san áireamh fosta na leaganacha aisteacha cumaisc atá á gcruthú faoi láthair i dtimpeallacht na nGaelscoileanna, ar cineál criól is dóiche atá iontu. (McCloskey 2001: 48–9)

Cén chaoi ar féidir rochtain ar an saibhreas seo a sholáthar do na mic léinn? Cén chaoi a bhféadfadh na foghlaimeoirí plé leis an oiread seo? Ar ndóigh, ní féidir an duine a bhá sna leaganacha éagsúla ó thús. Ní mór dúinn bunús a thógáil a bhféadfaí an t-eolas eile a thógáil air. Dar linn gurb é ceann de na canúintí an bunús is fearr lena aghaidh sin. Ní caighdeán, ós rud é nach eisean a úsáidtear sna comhthéacsanna a bhfuil an cur chuige feidhmeach bunaithe orthu agus a luadh thuas. Is iad na canúintí atá á labhairt sna ceantracha ina mbaintear úsáid as an teanga go laethúil agus, go deimhin, is iomaí dearcadh diúltach atá i measc mhuintir na gceantracha sin i leith an chaighdeáin (Ní Ghallachair 2002: 20–3) Ciallaíonn sé sin gurbh fhéidir go dteipfeadh ar na mic léinn ag an nóiméad is tábhachtaí agus iad ag iarraidh a dhul i mbun comhrá le duine. Agus is í an chúis a theipeadh orthu ná nach mbeadh an duine sin sásta labhairt le lucht an chaighdeáin. Is minic a chloiseann muid a leithéidí de scéalta a bhaineann chuile spreagadh as an bhfoghlaimeoir. Níl muid ag iarraidh go mbeadh sé sin i ndán dár gcuid mac léinn, ach a mhalairt, go mbeadh cur amach cuí acu ar na difríochtaí idir na leaganacha éagsúla teanga agus – rud atá


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thar a bheith tábhachtach i gcás na Gaeilge – tuairimí agus dearcadh i leith cheist na teanga a thagann leis na difríochtaí sin. Tugann an rogha canúna mar bhunús do theagaisc na Gaeilge go leor buntáistí. Ar an gcéad dul síos, mar a dúradh cheana, tugann sé deiseanna cainte – aidhm cúrsa ar bith teanga. Chomh maith leis sin, féadfaidh an mac léinn taithí a fháil ar na deacrachtaí a bhíonn ag na cainteoirí dúchais féin agus iad ag foghlaim na leaganacha caighdeánacha dá gcuid focal féin nach féidir leo iad a litriú de réir a gcuid fuaimníochta féin. Caithfidh tuiscint a bheith acu ar a leithéid de rudaí: Is minic…a úsáidtear an caighdeán mar bhata leis an chanúnachas a chur faoi chois… Ceadaítear go leor leaganacha agus éagsúlacht teangan taobh istigh den chaighdeán féin. Tá múineoirí den scoth ann atá ábalta na canúintí a mhíniú i gcomhthéacs an chaighdeáin agus i mo thuairim féin, is é seo réiteach na faidhbe. Ach is oth liom a rá go bhfuil an leibhéal sin saineolais gann go maith agus chíonn muid uilig an tanú atá ag teacht ar an teanga de thairbhe sin. Glacann cainteoirí dúchais le canúint nach bhfuil bá ar bith acu léi agus nach bhfuil dúchasach daofa agus dá bhrí sin, is annamh a éiríonn leo í a thabhairt i gceart. (Ní Ghallachair 2002: 23)

Is tuairim duine de bhonn na Gaeltachta iad na focail seo. Buntáiste eile a sholáthraíonn béim ar chanúint ná tús áite a thabhairt díreach do na daoine sin. Tá sé sin de dhíth mar gheall ar an méid neamhairde a dheantar orthu siúd. Seo mar a phléigh Brian Ó Curnáin faoi ghné den fhadhb seo: Tréaslaím le heagarthóirí agus údair an leabhair is fiúntas a n-altanna ag míniú chás na Gaeilge do Bhéarlóirí, i bhfianaise, mar shampla, an fhaillí scannalach a rinneadh sna meáin Bhéarla ar an Staidéar cuimsitheach teangeolaíoch ar úsáid na Gaeile sa Ghaeltacht. Ba mhór ab fhiú An insider’s view a fháil. (Ó Curnáin 2009: 94)

Tá easpa an insider’s view fíor i gcomhthéacs an léinn Éireannaigh i gcoitinne: True, one of the distinguishing features of Irish Studies has been the degree to which it focuses on the long negotiation between cultures in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but for the most part this has been approached from the aspect of Anglophone culture. (Ní Dhonnchadha 2006: 17)

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Caithfear díriú mar sin ar dhearcadh lucht na teanga féin agus gan a bheith sásta leis na tuairimí agus cur síos a dhéanann lucht an Bhéarla agus na foghlaimeoirí ar chúrsaí Gaeilge. Cuir i gcás an sampla seo a leanas: Is cuid dár gcultúr í an teanga Gaeilge agus is cuid chomh mór céanna é sacar, rud a thagann chugainn ó thír eile! (Ní Mhistéil 2000: 123)

Is i gcomhthéacs phlé na bunscolaíochta a scríobhadh na focail sin agus b’fhéidir go bhfuil an comhthéacs sin níos feiliúnaí dár gcás féin ar bhealach mar is daoine gan eolas ar an teanga roimhe sin iad ár gcuid mac léinn, cosúil le gasúir sa bhunscoil. Is tuairim ghinearálta atá sna focail sin ar aon chaoi agus taispeánann siad an difríocht idir cultúr Éireannach ar leis an ráiteas seo agus cultúr na Gaeilge. Is cinnte gur ‘cuid’ de chultúr Éireannach í an Ghaeilge mar gheall go maireann sé trí Bhéarla go príomha ach ní féidir le teanga a bheith ina ‘cuid de chultúr’ má tá an cultúr sin uilig bunaithe ar an teanga sin, más ise bun an chultúir sin – cultúir na Gaeilge inár gcás féin. Ní féidir le teanga a bheith ann gan cultúr a bheith aici, ní mar gheall gurb é an chaoi a gcaithfear cultúr éigin a chumadh don teanga go mbeadh sí in ann maireachtáil ach mar gheall go gcruthaíonn teanga cultúr ar aon chaoi, teorainn atá sa teanga atá níos buaine ná teorann ar an léarscáil. Is é atá i gcultúr na Gaeilge ná chuile thaithí saoil a fhaightear trí Ghaeilge – na suantraithe, an chaint sa teaghlach, coinní le daoine, foghlaim sa scoil. B’fhéidir gurb anseo a chríochnaíonn taithí na Gaeilge do go leor cainteoirí dúchais. Ach tá feiniméin eile fós a bhaineann le cultúr na Gaeilge: leithéidí Gluaiseacht Cearta Sibhialta na Gaeltachta, Údarás na Gaeltachta, Raidió na Gaeltachta. Is téamaí, scéalta, daoine, focail agus fuaimeanna iad seo nach bhfuil taithí ag duine nach bhfuil Gaeilge aige orthu. Seo toradh anailíse le Máirtín Ó Murchú a dhéanann sé le ceist a fhreagairt an bhfuil cultúr na Gaeltachta ann: Ar deireadh thiar thall is ar an teanga, agus ar an teanga amháin atá sainiúlacht phobal na Gaeltachta ag brath. Agus is uaithi go háirithe atá an dá shaintréith eagair is deimhnithí atá tagtha chun cinn inti le rianú, .i. an córas cumarsáide agus an córas rialaithe, chomh maith le foráis dhóchasacha eile, ar nós Chló Iar-Chonnachta atá préamhaithe go fírinneach in ithir na Gaeltachta. (Ó Murchú 2000: 15)


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I bhfocail eile, is minic a bhreathnaítear ar chultúr na Gaeilge trí thuairimí chultúr an Bhéarla, cur chuige nach dtugann cothrom na Féinne don chéad cheann agus a cheadaíonn luí do shamhlú steiréitíopaí ag an am céanna. Is féidir na feiniméin seo a thaispeáint d’fhoghlaimeoirí teanga, idir dhaltaí scoile agus dhaoine fásta, agus níl aon dabht go gcaithfear iad a theagasc dár gcuid mac léinn féin. Má tá muid ag iarraidh nach dtiocfadh na steiréitíopaí agus a leithéidí i gcion ar ár gcuid mhac léinn ach go mbeidís in ann cúrsaí teanga agus cultúir a thuiscint i gceart caithfear idirdhealú tábhachtach a dhéanamh idir cultúr na Gaeltachta, cultúr Gaelach agus cultúr na Gaeilge. Is é atá i gcultúr na Gaeltachta ná leithéidí na rudaí a luadh thuas, rudaí a bhfuil taithí ag daoine de bhunadh na Gaeltachta orthu. Is iad seo na rudaí a bhaineann leis an gcultúr Gaelach de réir Shorcha Ní Mhistéil (2000: 123): an Ghaeilge, seanscéalta, logainmneacha, sloinnte agus ainmneacha, seanfhocail, rabhlóga, amhráin Ghaeilge agus rincí/ ceol, cluichí Gaelacha – iománaíocht, peil, liathróid láimhe, paidreacha, ainmneacha na mbláthanna agus na gcrann. Is léir ón liosta sin nach bhfuil mórán bainte ag an gcultúr Gaelach leis an nGaeilge sa lá atá inniu ann. Is iad na rudaí atá luaite sa liosta seo ná gnéithe de chultúr na hÉireann a cheangail iad leis an seansaol, le seanchultúr na Gaeilge. Is cinnte, mar sin, go ndeirtear go ‘[bhfuil] an dá chultúr seo [Gaelach agus Éireannach] fite fuaite le chéile in Éirinn inniu’ (ibid.: 123). Déantar ceangal idir an Ghaeilge agus an cultúr Gaelach, idir an teanga agus an cultúr ar éirigh leis maireachtáil gan í ar chor ar bith (cuir i gcás cluichí Gaelacha sa liosta thuas). Ní gá Gaeilge a bheith ag duine leis na rudaí a luadh a léamh/imirt/dhéanamh. Ní ionann cultúr na Gaeilge agus an cultúr Gaelach. Ní chiallaíonn sé sin, áfach, nach bhfuil baint ag cultúr na Gaeilge leis an gcultúr Gaelach, tá sé chomh fite fuaite le cultúr Bhéarla na hÉireann a cheiltear taobh thiar den téarma ‘cultúr Éireannach’. Níl sa chultúr Gaelach ach gnéithe áirithe de chultúr na Gaeilge agus Bhéarla na hÉireann ar aon. Cén difríocht atá idir cultúr na Gaeltachta agus cultúr na Gaeilge? Má aontaíonn muid le tuairim Mháirtín Uí Mhurchú ‘[nach] i bpobal urlabhra na Gaeltachta ach an taobh is treise Gaeilge sa chointeanóid dhátheangach atá ar fáil ar fud na tíre’ (2000: 16)’ is féidir a rá gurb é cultúr na Gaeltachta an taobh is láidre de chointeanóid chultúr na Gaeilge. Ní dhéanann a leithéid seo de thuairim ach athneartú ar an gcinneadh go gcaithfear tús

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áite a thabhairt do theanga na Gaeltachta thar chineál teanga ar bith eile, mar gheall go bhfuil an dearcadh seo i lár struchtúr an chultúir Ghaelaigh. Is é an fáth a raibh orainn idirghníomaíochtaí idir cultúir éagsúla a phlé i bhfad anseo ná go bhfuil chuile chomhrá sainiúil don chultúr agus tá sé riachtanach an teanga a shocrú sa chomhthéacs cultúrtha ina maireann sí. Tá cultúr ar leith Gaeilge ann agus is fiú staidéar a dhéanamh air agus ní féidir é sin a dhéanamh gan an teanga a bheith agat agus is léir gurb iad na canúintí a thugann an deis dúinn rochtain a fháil ar an gcultúr seo agus dearcadh ón taobh istigh a fháil amach. Thairis sin, eascraíonn ceann de na fáthanna is tábhachtaí leis an gcinneadh sin as riachtanais na mac léinn, an tsuim theangeolaíoch atá acu agus aidhmeanna an chúrsa, is é sin an teanga nádúrtha ar toradh seachadaidh idirghlúine í a theagasc sa chaoi go mbeadh na mic léinn in ann rudaí a chur i gcomparáid: canúint amháin le canúint eile agus iad uilig leis an gcaighdeán. Leis an gcur chuige seo a chur i bhfeidhm baintear úsáid as na téacsleabhair agus ábhair theagaisc agus thagartha atá bunaithe ar chanúint nó ina bpléitear gnéithe éagsúla na gcanúintí, leithéidí Stenson 2008a agus 2008b, Ihde et al. 2008 agus Ó Siadhail 1995. Baintear leas as cúrsa ilmheánach Uí Dhónaill 2004 ós rud é go bhfuil físeanna an-úsádeacha sa chúrsa sin. Ar léibhéal níos airde úsáidtear an tsraith leabhar ‘An Teanga Bheo’ de chuid ITÉ (Ó Sé 1995; Ó Baoill 1996; Ó Murchú 1998) a thugann léargas ar na canúintí. Baintear úsáid freisin as na háiseanna atá ar fáil ar an idirlíon – Raidió na Gaeltacha agus TG4 go príomha.

6 Achoimre Tugann teagasc na Gaeilge sa Rúis, is é sin taobh amuigh de chomhthéacs traidisiúnta na hÉireann (agus b’fhéidir níos leithne – tíortha an Bhéarla), idir bhuntáistí agus dhúshláin. Is comhthéacs suimiúil ann féin é ar féidir leis a bheith ina chineál de ghorlann do smaointe nua i leith theagasc na


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teanga ós rud é go bhfuil difríochtaí áirithe ann idir riachtanais na mac léinn agus an cur chuige oideachasúil sa dá chás. Ní bhíonn Gaeilge ar scoil ag mic léinn na Rúise agus is i gcúrsaí teangeolaíocha a bhíonn príomhshuim acu, rudaí a chiallaíonn nach gá obair cheartaithe a dhéanamh ar a gcuid Gaeilge agus gurb í an teanga nádúrtha ar toradh seachadaidh idirghlúine í a d’fheilfeadh dá gcuid suime. Tá bunús an-fhabhrach i leith fhoghlaim na teanga ann, mar sin. Níl na mic léinn inár gcomhthéacs gaolta le lucht na Gaeilge ná lucht an Bhéarla, leis na cainteoirí dúchais ná na foghlaimeoirí Éireannacha. Is deis é sin dóibh léargas a fháil a dtugtar tuairimíocht an dá thaobh san áireamh ann. An dúshlán is mó, gan dabht, a thagann as mionteangachas na Gaeilge, ós rud é go n-éilíonn sé cur chuige áirithe, cuid aige pleanáilte go sonraí roimh ré, cuid eile, cumtha díreach ar an bpointe, sa chaoi nach mbainfí an spreagadh as na mic léinn ar thaobh amháin ach go dtugtar tuiscint réadúil ar chúrsaí teanga dóibh ar an taobh eile. Ní mór trácht a dhéanamh ar ghné eile a bhaineann le teagasc na Gaeilge taobh amuigh d’Éirinn, is é sin an ról a imríonn ár gcuid mac léinn ag léiriú suim idirnáisiúnta sa teanga, rud a thugann breis muiníne do lucht a labhartha, rud atá thar a bheith tábhachtach agus muid ag breathnú siar ar an tuairimíocht i leith na Gaeilge a mhaireadh in Éirinn agus a bhíonn fós le haireachtáil, is cosúil. Tosaíodh ar theagasc na Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó os cionn tríocha bliain ó shin. Bhí sí á múineadh mar ábhar breise ach anois tá cúrsa céime seolta, rud a éilíonn níos mó ó na teagascóirí agus ó na mic léinn ar aon. Tá muid dóchasach go mbeidh cúrsaí acadúla na Gaeilge i Moscó ag dul ó neart go neart fós. Tá muid dóchasach go mbeidh ár gcuid mac léinn gníomhach amach anseo agus go dtabharfaidh siad smaointe agus tuairimí nua leo féin agus go gcuirfidh siad leis an bhfás atá faoin Léann Éireannach anois: It is clear that the future growth of the Irish Studies lies mainly in the non-Anglophone world. This is due to the fact that the vast majority of the world’s population lives in the part of the world which is not English-speaking. (Cronin and Izarra 2006: 25) It is important, furthermore, that Irish Studies not be seen as a wholly Anglophone activity, so that due cognisance is taken of the Irish-language reality of Ireland, both in the present and in the past. (Ibid.: 27)

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Tagann an méid atá pléite san alt seo go maith i gcomhthéacs na tuairimíochta idirnáisiúnta. Tá forbairt dhíreach den chineál seo á déanamh againn ar chúrsaí theagasc na Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó, teagasc atá bunaithe ar thaithí agus phrionsabail na hollscoile i leith teagasc teangacha i gcoitinne agus ar riachtanais agus leas ár gcuid mhac léinn.

Tagairtí Bannister, G. (1983). Compléasc Foghlamtha na Gaeilge le haghaidh Cainteoirí Rúiseacha. Dublin: Dublin University Press. Cronin, M. and Izarra, L. (2006). ‘Irish Studies in the non-Anglophone world’. In Mahony, C.H., Izarra, L., Malcolm, E., Harrington, J.P., Pilný, O. and Crowe, C. (eds) (2006). The Future of Irish Studies: Report of the Irish Forum. Centre for Irish Studies, Charles University: Prague. Ihde, T., Ní Neachtain, M., Blyn-LaDrew, R. and Gillen, J. (2008). Colloquial Irish. New York, London: Routledge. McCloskey, J. (2001). Guthanna in Éag – an Mairfidh an Ghaeilge Beo? Baile Átha Cliath: Cois Life. Mikhailova, T. (1990). Irlandskiy yazyk. I. Teksty Dlya Chteniya. II. Slovar. Moskva. Mahony, C.H., Izarra, L., Malcolm, E., Harrington, J.P., Pilný, O. and Crowe, C. (eds) (2006). The Future of Irish Studies: Report of the Irish Forum. Centre for Irish Studies, Charles University: Prague. Ní Dhonnachadha, M. (2006). ‘Irish-language Teaching and Irish-Language Literature’. In Mahony, C.H., Izarra, L., Malcolm, E., Harrington, J.P., Pilný, O. and Crowe, C. (eds) (2006). The Future of Irish Studies: Report of the Irish Forum. Centre for Irish Studies, Charles University: Prague. Ní Ghallachair, A. (2002). ‘An bhFuil an Córas Oideachais ag Loiceadh ar Phobal na Gaeilge?’ In Ó hUiginn, R. (eag.), Léachtaí Cholm Cille XXXII: Curaclam na Gaeilge, 19–27. Maigh Nuad: An Sagart. Ní Mhistéil, S. (2000). ‘Smaointe i gComhair Teagaisc sa Bhunscoil’. In Ó Laoire, M. agus Ó Murchú, H. (eag.), Teagasc na Gaeilge 7, 116–45. Baile Átha Cliath: Comhar na Múinteoirí Gaeilge. Ó Baoill, D.P. (1996). An Teanga Bheo: Gaeilge Uladh. Baile Átha Cliath: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann.


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Ó Curnáin, B. (2009). ‘Mionteangú na Gaeilge’. In Ó Catháin, B. (eag.), Léachtaí Cholm Cille XXXIX: Sochtheangeolaíocht na Gaeilge, 90–143. Maigh Nuad: An Sagart. Ó Dónaill, É. (2004). Turas Teanga. Dublin: RTÉ and Gill and Macmillan. Ó Giollagáin, C., Mac Donnacha, S., Ní Chualáin, F., Ní Shéaghdha, A. agus O’ Brien, M. (2007). Staidéar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaíoch ar Usáid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht: Tuarascáil Chríochnaitheach. Oifig an tSoláthair: Baile Átha Cliath. Ó Murchú, H. (2001). ‘An Ghaeilge mar theanga neamhfhorleathan’. In Ó hUiginn, R. (eag.), Léachtaí Cholm Cille XXXI: Ceist na Teanga, 150–224. Maigh Nuad: An Sagart. Ó Murchú, M. (2000). ‘An Ghaeltacht mar Réigiún Cultúrtha: Léargas Teangeolaíoch’. In Mac Mathúna, L., Mac Murchaidh, C. agus Nic Eoin, M. (eag.), Teanga Pobal agus Réigiún: Aistí ar Chultúr na Gaeltachta inniu, 9–20. Baile Átha Cliath: Coiscéim. Ó Murchú, S. (1998). An Teanga Bheo: Gaeilge Chonamara. Baile Átha Cliath: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann. Ó Sé, D. (1995). An Teanga Bheo: Corca Dhuibhne. Baile Átha Cliath: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann. Ó Siadhail, M. (1995). Learning Irish. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. Stenson, N. (2000). ‘Cúrsaí Gaeilge i Meiriceá Thuaidh’. In Ó Laoire, M. agus Ó Murchú, H. (eag.), Teagasc na Gaeilge 7, 107–13. Baile Átha Cliath: Comhar na Múinteoirí. Stenson, N. (2008a). Basic Irish: A Grammar and Workbook. New York, London: Routledge. Stenson, N. (2008b). Intermediate Irish, A Grammar and Workbook. New York, London: Routledge.

Claudia Borghetti

Pursuing Intercultural and Communicative Goals in the Foreign Language Classroom: Clues from Selected Models of Intercultural Competence

After more than twenty years of research into Intercultural Foreign Language Education (IFLE), the importance of Intercultural Competence (IC) in the foreign language classroom is largely recognized. Less consensus is found on the little debated question of how IC can be taught. Questions that still remain open include: what are the objectives of intercultural learning? What relationship do intercultural objectives entertain with linguistic/communicative ones? What methodological principles should be adopted in order to promote the organic acquisition of IC and Communicative Competence (CC) in a foreign language? In this article these issues are addressed by illustrating a study carried out on a variety of models of IC. The aim of the study is to isolate those aspects of IC which can be significant and pertinent to guide language teachers in pursuing educational goals concretely alongside communicative objectives. As will be shown in the discussion, the investigated issues are made more problematic by the lack of theoretical and conceptual consensus on the nature of the relationship linking CC and IC, both within and without IFLE. While some scholars define them (more or less explicitly) as separate competences (Bennett 1993; Brislin, Yoshida 1994; Deardorf f 2006), others ‘place cultural competence as a subcomponent of communicative competence’ (Risager 2007: 223) (e.g. Kramsch 1993, 1998a or Balboni 2006) or, conversely, consider CC as an appendage of the wider intercultural communicative competence (Byram 1997). In what follows, an introduction is provided to the set of theoretical models analysed in the study and to the criteria adopted to explore them (§ 1). Some of the models are then analysed in more detail (§ 2). Finally,

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based on the results of the analysis, a number of considerations are proposed concerning intercultural objectives, the relationship between intercultural objectives and communicative ones, and the methodological principles to be adopted to pursue both of them (§ 3).

1 The Study: Preliminary Definitions Given the vagueness of the term model and the variety of labels and definitions provided for the concept of IC in literature, the first step of the present study was a careful selection of the frameworks to be taken into consideration (§ 1.1). During the selection process, a number of research questions were formulated for the analysis and assessment of the selected frameworks (§ 1.2). 1.1 Towards a set of models of IC 1.1.1 The notion of IC In her substantial research on the definition and assessment of IC, Deardorf f mentions forty-nine relevant studies, each one with their own definition of IC (2006: 242). Further definitions are provided by Fantini (1997, 2000) and Balboni (2006). Such variety can be ascribed to two main factors. First, the notion of IC is intrinsically interdisciplinary and has, therefore, taken up dif ferent forms, names and definitions depending on the objects and aims of the studies within which it was considered. Second, even after becoming established within a given field of knowledge, IC kept evolving, although generally only after a period of time of conceptual confusion and terminological overlapping. The interdisciplinary nature of IC is apparent from its very history. The term was first used in international relations literature about peace corps and their relationships with developing countries, especially in the work of

Pursuing Intercultural and Communicative Goals in the Language Classroom 335

Hoselitz (1954) and Gardner (1962). Having originated in the pedagogical needs of professional training, IC later became the object of a considerable amount of studies on intercultural communication, where it provided a useful conceptual construct for theories such as adaptation, acculturation, culture shock, etc. Only later did IFLE discover IC’s deep educational significance for foreign language students (Byram 1989, 1997). The evolution of the concept within each discipline has led to some conceptual and terminological overlapping, with a few notable persistent ambiguities. A case of overlapping was due to the shift from ‘socio-cultural competence’ (Byram, Zarate 1994) to ‘intercultural competence’ within IFLE: Even though deliberate and coherent, such a shift has not yet been completely assimilated. In the field of intercultural communication further examples of ambiguity are provided by the adjectives ‘cross-cultural’ and ‘intercultural’,1 and by the seeming equivalence of the terms ‘competence’ and ‘competency’.2 Given the number and variety of definitions available for IC, a criterion was needed for selecting the set of IC models to take into consideration. It was thus established that the study should focus on those frameworks which regard IC as an integral whole of cognitive, af fective and behavioural factors that inf luence the understanding of and interaction with diversity in a broad sense, and which can be developed through education and/ or experience. In accordance with these two criteria, the focus included models of ‘intercultural communication competence’, ‘intercultural communicative competence’, ‘cross-cultural competence’ and ‘cultural sensitivity’. Terminological distinctions were not considered as selection criteria, nor was the discipline within which the models were developed or the forms used for their illustration (graphical representations, lists of traits, descriptions and so on). 1

2

These were used interchangeably for a long time, but have now come to indicate dif ferent competences and research fields: ‘cross-cultural competence’ refers to the encounter of cultures, while ‘intercultural competence’ is a specific term used in the analysis of interaction among people with dif ferent backgrounds (Knapp, KnappPotthof f 1987: 7). The term ‘competency’, originally from American English, is often used also in Europe in relation to intercultural studies when aimed at professional training.

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1.1.2 The notion of model General criteria were also needed to define the notion of model 3 among the wealth of frameworks developed within disciplines as varied as IFLE, intercultural communication, counselling, social psychology, and multicultural education. Balboni’s definition of model as ‘a generative framework, i.e. a pattern or a structure which can include all possible occurrences, and is able to generate behaviour’ (2006: 6) can be accepted as valid. Yet, for the purposes of this study and to avoid an excessively strict selection, either one of the two conditions posed by Balboni is considered suf ficient in defining a model. This allowed inclusion of those frameworks of IC which, either ‘descriptive’ or ‘developmental’ (Borghetti 2008),4 did not meet both conditions, yet proved of great interest to the objectives of the present study. While descriptive models aim to faithfully reproduce the phenomenon in detail as considered at its climax, developmental models concentrate on the phases necessary to reach such a climax. This is foremost interesting for the present study since within this macro-categorization of model types, further subdivision is also possible: for example, descriptive models can present the components of competence in either an analytical manner (Chen, Starosta 1996; Samovar, Porter 2004; Spitzberg 2000), or they can delve into the factors that the teacher must consider during the teaching process in detail (Byram 1997; Balboni 2006). In the same way, developmental models can be divided into frameworks that aim to represent the steps of competence acquisition as they occur on the psychological level of the individual (Bennett 1993; Gaston 2005) and those which concentrate on the progression of teaching operations in a manner more or less coherent to hypotheses of psychological change (Kramsch 1993, 1998a; Brislin, Yoshida 1994). 3 4

See Byram (2009: 217–19) for a comprehensive discussion of the notion of ‘model’ both in general and in the specific domain of intercultural competence. The distinction between ‘descriptive’ and ‘developmental’ models of IC lays on dif ferent basis than Byram’s dif ferentation between ‘descriptive’ and ‘prescriptive’ models (2009: 217): here the main criterion is ‘synchronic’ (descriptive) versus ‘diachronic’ (developmental), whereas Byram first analyses their manifest (descriptive or pedagogical) intent and mentions their being dynamic as a possible additional feature.


1.1.3 Selected models of IC Based on the two criteria mentioned above (§ 1.1.1 and § 1.1.2), the study focused on the following set of models of IC: Samovar, Porter 2004; Spitzberg 2000; Chen, Starosta 1996; Deardorf f 2006; Brislin, Yoshida 1994; Bennett 1993; Balboni 2006; Gaston 2005; Kramsch 1993, 1998a; Seelye 1994; Byram 1997; Fantini 1997, 2000. 1.2 Method The study looks to compare the selected models of IC based on how they define intercultural objectives, conceive the relationship between intercultural and linguistic objectives, and handle with the implementation of theoretical statements into teaching. Its ultimate aim is to find practical avenues for the integrated pursuit of both objectives in the foreign language classroom. As such, the chosen standpoint is that of IFLE, even when the models discussed were not originally developed for educational settings but rather for the needs of professional training (Brislin, Yoshida 1994), or as purely descriptive constructs (Chen, Starosta 1996; Samovar, Porter 2004), or disregarding the role of the foreign language (Bennett 1993; Deardorf f 2006). In light of this, the set of models was examined in relation to the following three research questions: 1. What are the objectives of intercultural learning? 2. What relationship do intercultural objectives have with communicative ones? 3. What methodological principles should be adopted in order to jointly pursue both kinds of objectives?

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2 A Critical Review of the Models of IC Table 23 shows an overview of the selected models, stating for each one of them whether they address the three research questions. Table 23 The Selected Models in Relation to the Three Research Questions 1. Intercultural objectives

2. 3. Relation with commu- Methodological proposals nicative objectives

Samovar, Porter 2004

No

No

Yes*

Spitzberg 2000

No

No

No

Chen, Starosta 1996

No

No

No

Deardorf f 2006

No

No

No

Brislin, Yoshida 1994

Yes

No

Yes*

Bennett 1993

No

No

Yes*

Balboni 2006

Yes

Yes

No

Gaston 2005

Yes

No

Yes

Kramsch 1993, 1998a

No

Yes

Yes

Seelye 1994

Yes

Yes

Yes

Byram 1997

Yes

Yes

No

Fantini 1997, 2000

Yes

Yes

Yes

Table 23 shows that some of the models do not fully address all the research questions (Samovar, Porter 2004), while others do not answer any of them (Spitzberg 2000; Chen, Starosta 1996; Deardorf f 2006). This is due to the fact that, with the exception of Deardorf f ’s ‘Process Model of Intercultural Competence’, these models arose within the field of intercultural communication and have no interest in describing IC in terms of learning objectives, especially linguistic ones. As a result, these four


models are not devoted a separate section and are only brief ly described with reference to other frameworks. However, given the interest of some of the issues they raise, even the models which do not directly address the main research focus have of fered useful insights, especially at a theoretical and conceptual level.5 As far as methodological principles are concerned, the third research question clearly applies only to those frameworks which consider both intercultural and linguistic objectives. In all other cases (indicated with an asterisk in Table 23), the research question is articulated exclusively in terms of intercultural objectives. 2.1 Brislin, Yoshida 1994 Brislin and Yoshida’s ‘Intercultural communication model’ is aimed at the design of intercultural training programmes; consequently, it is not aimed at students in educational settings, let alone for language students. Indeed, as shown in the second column of Table 23, it does not consider the foreign language at all. The authors are aware of this and, to justify their decision, af firm that too often training courses focus too much on the target language and thus end up creating ‘f luent fools’, people ‘who can speak a language f luently yet know nothing about the culture’ (1994: 48). Nevertheless, this model is of great interest not only because it proposes a number of intercultural objectives (for example ‘personal autonomy’ or ‘f lexibility and openness’), but also because it relates each of them to a specific component of the competence (for example, ‘f lexibility and openness’ are associated with the ‘skills’ component).

5

To mention but a few examples, Spitzberg’s ‘intercultural communication competence’ is of interest for the relevance it assigns to contextual and interactional factors in the activation and development of the competence (2000: 375). Chen and Starosta’s contribution stands out for the originality of the link they establish between their notion of ‘intercultural communication competence’ and multiple identity theory (1996: 358–59).

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The authors identify four IC components: ‘awareness’, ‘knowledge’, ‘emotions’ and ‘skills’. These are defined based on research in social and cognitive psychology and on the tripartite distinction between af fect, cognition, and behaviour. While the application of such distinction to the field of education is mainly due to Bloom and his ‘Taxonomy of Educational Objectives’ (1956), Brislin and Yoshida state that they take it from counselling (1994: 26). Whatever its origin and the terms adopted to indicate each component,6 this tripartite distinction is undoubtedly the most productive in the development of IC models both within intercultural communication and training (Samovar, Porter 2004; Spitzberg 2000; Chen, Starosta 1996; Deardorf f 2006) and within IFLE (Byram 1997; Fantini 2000). What is totally new in Brislin and Yoshida’s model, however, is that such components are intended sequentially as part of a four-step approach marking the progression of a hypothetical training course. Equally relevant are the operational proposals put forward by the model for promoting IC. Their interest lies in the fact that the suggested activities, games and exercises are tailored to each specific component/step of the theorized teaching process. 2.2 Bennett 1993 Bennett’s ‘Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity’, first formulated in 1986, aims to explain how individuals respond to cultural dif ferences and, at the same time, to design teaching activities in agreement with typical learning patterns. His model consists of six stages grouped into three ethnocentric and three ethnorelative stages, which the individual goes through in the development of his/her intercultural sensitivity: 6

While the cognitive component is almost universally called ‘knowledge’, more controversial is the definition of the af fective component, referred to as ‘emotions’, ‘attitudes’ or ‘motivation’ by dif ferent authors and within dif ferent models. Outright chaotic is the case of the behavioural component, which is nonetheless associated with a set of ‘skills’ in most cases.


THE ETHNOCENTRIC STAGES 1. Denial A. Isolation B. Separation 2. Defence A. Denigration B. Superiority C. Reversal 3. Minimization A. Physical Universalism B. Transcendent Universalism THE ETHNORELATIVE STAGES 4. Acceptance A. Respect for Behavioural Dif ference B. Respect for Value Dif ference 5. Adaptation A. Empathy B. Pluralism 6. Integration A. Contextual Evaluation B. Constructive Marginality — Bennett 1993: 29 Bennett’s developmental model is one of the rare attempts to identify the learning processes involved in IC acquisition. The classification of the process into stages appears as over-rigid since the acquisition of cultural sensitivity is described as a sequence of successive steps culminating ideally in the ‘multicultural man’ (Adler 1974) or, in less optimistic and

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more postmodern terms, in dif ferent forms of multiple or hybrid identity. However, Bennett’s model is relatively adaptable and allows for a degree of f lexibility as it acknowledges that, under peculiar circumstances, a learner’s progress can come to a halt or even regress (Bennett 1993: 27). From a developmental perspective, another important aspect of Bennett’s model (especially in consideration of other models) is that the dif ferent stages in the acquisition of intercultural sensitivity develop sequentially following the successive acquisition of the cognitive, af fective and behavioural components. The progression described by the model is such that the cognitive and af fective components alternate during the ethnocentric stages and start to integrate with each other and with the behavioural component only in the ‘acceptance’ stage, becoming fully assimilated and synergetic only in the final stage of ‘constructive marginality’ (last stage of the ‘integration’ phase). Stating that the multidimensional nature of the model does not require a clear-cut distinction of the three functions, Bennett does not provide further details about their interaction (1993: 26) and mentions it only sporadically and marginally in his otherwise detailed account of the six developmental stages. The model is not articulated around intercultural objectives and makes no mention of foreign languages; yet, it is quite relevant for the third research question outlined above, since it links every stage of intercultural sensitivity development with the teaching activities which most suitably stimulate it. In this sense, Bennett’s attempt is very similar to Brislin and Yoshida’s. The main dif ference between the two lies in that Bennett’s teaching activities are proposed based on the postulated developmental stages rather than on the IC components. 2.3 Balboni 2006 Unlike the two previous examples, Balboni’s model of ‘Intercultural Communication Competence’ addresses foreign language teaching contexts. This is evident also in the fact that, along with cultural objectives, careful


consideration is given to verbal and non-verbal objectives.7 However, as is shown in Figure 5, cultural and communicative objectives are only placed side by side and the relation between them is not further clarified. What is definitely noteworthy, however, is that – besides the cultural and linguistic dimensions which are central to the competence – a further contextual dimension is defined,8 which allows the move from competence to performance.

ICCC

Verbal and nonverbal codes used to communicate

cultural values which influence communication

Intercultural communicative events

Figure 5 Balboni’s Model of Intercultural Communication Competence (Balboni 2006: 15)

7 8

In fact, numerous other models originating in dif ferent contexts (e.g. Samovar, Porter 2004) emphasize the importance of linguistic, paralinguistic and extra-linguistic issues in intercultural interaction. While lying on dif ferent conceptual foundations, this intuition is not too distant from Spitzberg’s (2000).

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After a description of the dif ferent components of ‘Intercultural communication competence’, a list is proposed of elements which, within each component, may prove crucial to intercultural communication and to the definition of pedagogical objectives. With the exception of verbal and nonverbal codes which constitute closed systems, ‘i.e. no further elements can or need be added’ (2006: 17), the other components can only be described through examples, since they are open systems subject to constant integrations and modifications. As far as the second research question is concerned, in Balboni’s model language is intended exclusively in terms of ‘languaculture’ and not of ‘discourse’9. In other words, the framework focuses on language intended exclusively as a whole made up of (verbal, non-verbal, socio-linguistic and pragmatic) factors that may negatively af fect intercultural communication. It is indeed self-evident that this approach limits the educational value of language teaching since it excludes all the cultural aspects that are not encoded into languages (such as cultural habits, values, attitudes and so on). 2.4 Gaston 2005 Formulated in its first version in 1984, Gaston’s model is shaped around the needs of ESL teaching settings. With its roots in the North American tradition of multicultural education, the model has nonetheless had significant impact in foreign language teaching also in Europe (Camilleri 2002). The focal point of the model is the notion of ‘cultural awareness’ defined as ‘the recognition that culture af fects perception and that culture inf luences values, attitudes and behavior’ (Gaston 2005: 2). Based on this definition, Gaston’s ‘cultural (or intercultural) awareness’ should 9

‘The cultural view of language […] may be said to comprise two levels: the level of languaculture, bound to specific languages, and the level of discourse, not necessarily bound to any one language’ since discourse is primarily defined in relation to its content and deals ‘with a certain subject matter from a certain perspective’ (Risager 2007: 173–4).


not be included in this review since it lacks all the af fective, cognitive and behavioural factors defining IC. However, careful consideration suggests that this special instance of ‘cultural awareness’ can be assimilated to the wider notion of IC thanks to the role it accords to skills. After defining four stages in the acquisition of ‘cultural awareness’, the author links each of the stages to the development of a dif ferent skill. Since such skills are the result (both potential and actual) of the interaction between af fective and cognitive factors, Gaston’s ‘cultural awareness’ indirectly displays all the components usually identified within IC: 1. STAGE 1 – RECOGNITION Skill: Non-judgemental observation 2. STAGE 2 – ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION Skill: Coping with ambiguity 3. STAGE 3 – INTEGRATION/ETHNOCENTRISM Skill: Ability to empathize 4. STAGE 4 – TRANSCENDENCE Skill: Ability to respect

— Gaston 2005: 3–5

As in Bennett’s work, the processes hypothesized for IC acquisition become the starting point for defining dif ferent stages of pedagogical practice. What distinguishes Gaston’s model from Bennett’s ‘Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity’ is that here each pedagogical stage is designed around a macro-objective (i.e. one of the four skills). This is in turn articulated into more specific and detailed objectives, which are accurately described at the beginning of each suggested teaching activity. The relevance of Gaston’s model lies precisely in the fact that its theoretical framework is preparatory for the design of an analytical pedagogical plan made up of twenty teaching activities. These are divided into four units of five activities each, which correspond to the proposed four stages involved in the acquisition/teaching of cultural awareness.

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As far as foreign languages are concerned, these are not given a significant role in the conceptual model or in the teaching activities. The model simply ignores the role language may play in either hindering or promoting the development of the competence. The teaching techniques address linguistic aspects only when dealing with text comprehension and production in a target language, but do not consider the cultural values of language and do not use language for communicative ends. 2.5 Kramsch 1993, 1998a First formulated in 1993 and slightly revised a few years later (1998a), Kramsch’s model is developed within IFLE. The framework aims at promoting ‘cross-cultural understanding’ and is founded on a notion of ‘culture’ which can be summed up as follows: • Culture is dif ference. Hence, ‘national traits are but one of the many aspects of a person’s “culture”’ (1993: 206); • Culture ‘is an interpersonal process of meaning construction’ (1998a: 17). Since culture emerges dynamically from the interaction among individuals (1993: 30), ‘context’ and ‘dialogue’ are key notions in crosscultural education; • Culture (whether of the Self or of Others) is the complex result of the interaction between cultural reality and imagination. The latter, no less real than the former, is a social product, hence, ‘the teaching of culture is all the more dif ficult as imagination and reality both contradict and reinforce one another’ (1998a: 19). Based on these premises,10 Kramsch sums up her theory claiming that, when two individuals interact, the cultural context that they construct through their dialogue is shaped not only by the ‘objective’ reality of their 10 Implicitly underlying Kramsch’s premises is the notion of identity as a multiple, unstable, and relative construct. Interesting analogies are found between Kramsch’s definition of ‘culture’ and that proposed by Chen and Starosta, who state that culture is ‘a set of preferences and possibilities that inform, rather than determine, given


respective cultures (C1 and C2), but also (and to a greater extent) by the self-perception each one of them has of their own native culture (C1´ and C2´) and by the perception they have of the cultural group of the Other (C1´´ and C2´´ ). Moreover, very often the heterostereotype (C 1´´) is linked to the autostereotype (C1´) more than to the foreign cultural reality (C2) (1993: 208). The model here illustrated intends to guide the language teacher through such an entangled web of perceptions to the development of a ‘third perspective’ ‘that would enable learners to take both an insider’s and an outsider’s view on C1 and C2’ (1993: 210). The framework proposes a four-stage (or macro-objective) approach through which students are guided to the creation of a ‘third place’. The four stages are: 1. Construct with the foreign learners their own context of reception, i.e. find an equivalent phenomenon in IC and construct that IC phenomenon with its network of meanings (C1, C1´). 2. Reconstruct the context of production and reception of the text within the foreign culture (C2, C2´). 3. Examine the way in which C1´ e C2´ contexts in part determine C1´´ e C2´´ , i.e. the way each culture sees the other. 4. Lay the ground for a dialogue that could lead to change. — Kramsch, 1993: 21011 The role assigned to the foreign language is of extreme interest. Kramsch considers culture as a feature of language (1993: 8). In other words, culture plays a role within IFLE only because language is a social practice and, as such, it needs to be understood in its cultural meanings. Unfortunately, the model itself does not ref lect this strong stand and keeps the lid on the possible role of the mother tongue and foreign language in ‘cross-cultural understanding’.

11

interactions. Communicators both shape and are shaped by these familiar meanings’ (1996: 359). The content of this quotation is taken from Kramsch (1993: 210), but Stage 1 and 2 are inverted following Kramsch (1998a: 25–6).

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In terms of the third research question, Kramsch proposes a few communicative teaching activities enriched with a ‘contrastive cultural dimension’ (Ibid.: 229–31). However, the suggested activities are only generically tailored around the four stages envisaged by the model and very limited detail is provided as to the specific actions to be taken for achieving the objectives delineated in each stage. 2.6 Seelye 1994 Seelye’s model also has a strong educational focus, as evidenced by its articulation into teaching objectives or ‘instructional goals’. In the author’s own words: Goal 1 – Interest: The student shows curiosity about another culture (or another segment or subculture of one’s own culture) and empathy towards its members. Goal 2 – Who: The student recognizes the role expectation and other social variables such as age, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and place of residence af fect the way people speak and behave. Goal 3 – What: The student realizes that ef fective communication requires discovering the culturally conditioned images that are evoked in the minds of people when they think, act, and react to the world around them. Goal 4 – Where and When: The student recognizes the situational variables and convention shape behaviour in important ways. Goal 5 – Why: The student understands that people act the way they do because they are using options their society allows for satisfying basic physical and psychological needs, and that cultural patterns are interrelated and tend to support need satisfaction. Goal 6 – Exploration: The student can evaluate a generalization about the target culture in terms of the amount of terms substantiating it, and ha s the skills needed to locate and organize information about the target culture from the library, the mass media, people, and personal observation. — Seelye 1994: 31


When the first version of the model made its appearance in 1974, it was presented as a pioneering attempt to renew cultural pedagogy by adopting a wider, anthropological notion of culture. In spite of this, Seelye’s proposals appear dated today, especially since they consider diversity merely in terms of nationality (Risager 2007: 43). As for the role of foreign languages, ‘there is no mention of any analysis of the relationship between the two linguistic oriented goals12 and the other goals, i.e. there is no analysis of the relationship between teaching language and teaching culture’ (Ibid.: 45). However, while this is true of the objectives set forth by the theoretical model, the same cannot be said of the sections devoted to the teaching activities, as most of them set out with the analysis of dialogues, situations, adverts, etc. in the foreign language. Moreover, language itself is used as a cultural phenomenon to provide the necessary context and, occasionally, illustrate the cultural issues in discussion. With the exception of Byram’s proposal, what distinguishes this model from all the others is that it explicitly illustrates ad-hoc teaching and assessment methods for each educational goal and its corresponding pedagogical objectives. Methodological suggestions, most of which are used to introduce precise teaching activities, are present and are inextricably linked to the specific objective for which they are devised. As a result, while the proposed activities have inherent weaknesses because they are dated and often rely on audacious generalizations, their definition in close correspondence with the educational objectives is of undoubted relevance. 2.7 Byram 1997 Byram’s ‘Intercultural Communicative Model’, the most famous in IFLE, is described in terms of five components: ‘Attitudes’, ‘Knowledge’, ‘Skills of interpreting and relating’, ‘Skills of discovering and interacting’ and ‘Critical cultural awareness’ (Byram, 2008: 230). The definition of each of the components leads to the identification of general and specific teaching

12

The second and the third goals.

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objectives (Byram 1997: 56–70) and corresponding assessment criteria (Ibid.: 87–111). Indeed, Byram follows Seelye’s example in expressing the competence through a set of teaching objectives; however, while Seelye only identified general objectives with no preliminary theoretical analysis of the competence, Byram provides precise definitions of the IC components so that teachers can more easily and autonomously translate them into teaching practice. The most original contribution of Byram’s model, however, is the idea that intercultural and communicative objectives should be thought of and treated separately. In particular, Byram distinguishes between ‘intercultural competence’ and ‘intercultural communicative competence’: in the former case individuals have the ability to interact in their own language with people from another culture; in the latter case, while interacting, they also put into practice their linguistic, socio-linguistic and discourse competences in the foreign language. As a consequence, rightly pointed out by Risager, ‘Byram emphasizes that the five savoirs are not just minted for the person who acquires/learns a foreign language (or second language). Everyone, including monolinguals, can and ought to develop their intercultural competence’ (2007: 225). In terms of pedagogical proposals, Byram (1997) remains deliberately vague13 and of fers only very general guidelines for the evaluation of the educational setting. Such evaluation can then be the starting point for defining the objectives, the order in which they should be pursued, as well as appropriate assessment methods. 2.8 Fantini 1997, 2000 Fantini has devoted two dif ferent models to IC which, unfortunately, are unrelated to each other. For a detailed discussion, I will start by illustrating the author’s theoretical treatment of IC (2000) and will then proceed to reviewing his 1997 methodological proposals. 13

More detailed methodological and operational proposals can be found in Byram, Morgan (1994) and Byram, Zarate (1995).


In the 2000 model, IC is described in terms of ‘awareness’, ‘attitudes’, ‘skills’ and ‘knowledge’ (A+ASK), and is a reinterpretation of the tripartite taxonomy (af fective, cognitive, and psychomotor) proposed by Bloom for the definition of his educational objectives (1956). Fantini adds the notion of ‘awareness’ as a superordinate component to the other three. This model is purely descriptive and simply aims at describing the dimensions interacting within IC, with no pedagogic end in mind. On the other hand, the second model, called the ‘Process Approach (PA) Framework’, is a useful device which language teachers can use to develop intercultural course syllabi. It is a seven-stage framework suggesting appropriate activities for each teaching stage: 1. Presentation of new material; 2. Practice of new material within a limited and controlled context; 3. Explanation or elucidation of the grammar rules behind the material, where necessary or useful […]; 4. Transposition and use of new material (in accumulation with other materials previously learned by the students) into freer, less controlled contexts and more spontaneous conversation; 5. Sociolinguistic exploration of the interrelationships of social context and language use, emphasizing the appropriateness of specific language styles (as opposed to grammaticality) […]; 6. Culture exploration for determining appropriate strategies and behaviours, while also learning about values, beliefs, customs, and so on of the target culture […]; 7. Intercultural exploration for comparing and contrasting the target culture with the student’s native culture […]. — Fantini 1997: 40–1 The interest of this model lies in its aim as the proposed activities link intercultural and linguistic objectives. However, its validity is seriously challenged by the lack of reference to the IC components described in the theoretical model. As a consequence, the model cannot rely on a solid theoretical basis to justify and support the methodological proposals put forward.

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As far as the second research question is concerned, while foreign language teaching is given a crucial role in the methodological model, the relationship between IC and foreign language proficiency is considerably less clear in the theoretical framework. Like in Byram’s model, IC and foreign language proficiency are kept separate. The dif ference is that Fantini does not take a stand on this topic and language is only seen as an appendage of intercultural competence: ‘in this construct of ICC, there are […] five dimensions. These are awareness, attitudes, skills, knowledge (A+ASK), and proficiency in the host tongue’ (2000: 28).

3 Discussion The review of fered so far has highlighted a number of aspects of interest for moving from theoretical descriptions of IC to their pedagogical implementation in the foreign language classroom. In what follows, these aspects are discussed in more detail based on the three research questions which have guided the review of the models. Table 24 A Summary of the Analysis 1. Intercultural objectives

2. Relation with communicative objectives

3. Methodological proposals

Samovar, Porter 2004

No

No

Yes*

Spitzberg 2000

No

No

No

Chen, Starosta 1996

No

No

No

Deardorf f 2006

No

No

No

In relation to IC components

No

Activities. In relation to intercultural objectives*

Brislin, Yoshida 1994

Pursuing Intercultural and Communicative Goals in the Language Classroom 353 Bennett 1993

No

No

Activities. In relation to developmental stages*

Balboni 2006

In relation to IC components

Just placed side by side

No

Gaston 2005

In relation to IC acquisition

No

Activities. In relation to developmental stages

Kramsch 1993, 1998a

In relation to IC ‘teaching’

In activities

Activities. Not linked to specific stages

Seelye 1994


Just placed side by side + in activities

General suggestions. In relation to intercultural objectives

Byram 1997

In relation to IC There is not always components a relationship

Fantini 1997, 2000


Just placed side by side + in activities

No Activities. In relation to teaching stages

3.1 Intercultural objectives Most of the models considered mention intercultural objectives. This is encouraging for the aims of this study, since, as indicated by Byram, articulating a framework in terms of objectives implies ‘a refinement of the definitions […] and a step towards describing teaching and assessment’ (1997: 50). The analysis shows that three categories of IC models can be identified based on the criteria they use to define intercultural objectives: first are the models which link intercultural objectives directly to the dif ferent stages of IC acquisition (Gaston 2005); second, those which shape the objectives around the teaching process, whether generically (Seelye 1994) or through a detailed sequencing of teaching actions (Kramsch 1993, 1998a; Fantini 1997); lastly, the models which derive their pedagogical objectives from the dif ferent IC components (Brislin, Yoshida 1994; Balboni 2006; Byram 1997).

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Ideally, the most interesting of these categories would be the first one, which derives intercultural objectives directly from the learning processes involved in IC acquisition. The undoubted advantage is that this could allow teaching practices to be based directly on learning theories. However, since little is currently known about IC acquisition at the individual level,14 attempts of this kind risk generating a great number of developmental models lacking solid theoretical foundations. An even weaker theoretical basis is found in the second category, where teaching processes are designed without any further investigation on the nature of IC. In this respect, the third category seems to be the most convincing, since its models explore the nature of IC components to provide their educational objectives with solid theoretical foundations. Their main strength lies in that their descriptions are based on recognized research in social and cognitive psychology. 3.2 Communicative objectives The second research question is the one which has yielded the poorest results. The few models (five out of twelve) which mention the foreign language do not specify how this is linked to IC, neither in terms of their acquisition nor in terms of teaching practice. As far as acquisition is concerned, the lack of relevant models can be ascribed to the dif ficulty in finding empirical evidence of the factors that promote or hinder IC acquisition and, consequently, of how this is linked to second language acquisition. While not fully addressing the issue, Byram’s model is the only one which considers the need to define the relationship between intercultural and communicative objectives. The author indirectly postulates their relative independence by suggesting that ‘the relationship between Intercultural Competence and Intercultural Communicative Competence is one of degrees of complexity’ (1997: 71). In other words, intercultural development and language acquisition do not seem to af fect each other in significant ways. 14

See for example: Lantolf (1999), Pavlenko, Lantolf (2000).


The models which adopt an applied approach and tackle this issue from a pedagogical standpoint prove similarly elusive: whether they place intercultural and linguistic objectives side by side (Balboni 2006) or they give them a more organic treatment (Kramsch 1993; Seelye 1994; Fantini 1997), no theoretical or operational justification seems to support them. This negligence and lack of appropriate research ef forts is all the more significant if we consider that the question of how to integrate these two kinds of objectives is crucial for the future of IFLE, where teaching a foreign language obviously remains a priority. 3.3 Methodological proposals Interestingly, most of the IC models taken into considerations put forward operational proposals of some sort. At a closer look, however, it becomes clear that all of them, with the partial exception of Seelye’s one, present teaching activities instead of proper methodological principles. This could be thought of as a limit since the latter would of fer to language teachers viable and theoretically founded guidelines in order to devise the activities that better match their own teaching context. However, results concerning the third research question are quite interesting for the variety of the solutions of fered by the models for connecting pedagogical practices to conceptual principles. Every framework develops teaching activities in a dif ferent way, although always in agreement with the specific conceptual principles it is based on: intercultural objectives (Brislin, Yoshida 1994; Seelye 1994), teaching stages (Fantini 1997) or developmental stages of IC acquisition (Bennett 1993; Gaston 2005). As a consequence, the theoretical weaknesses emerged from the first research question are found again here, although from a dif ferent perspective.

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4 Conclusions The study here presented has allowed the identification of specific features a model should have to become, as well as a theoretical construct, an invaluable source of teaching behaviours, which can guide foreign language teachers in their work. The mere fact that most of the frameworks considered of fer teaching suggestions alongside theoretical principles shows the validity of the route undertaken by this study. In other words, it is a worthwhile endeavour to look to create a model of IC which describes the competence in terms of components, relations among components, educational goals and pedagogical objectives, while of fering instructions as to how to translate these into methodological choices related to course planning, material development, activities and procedures. The study presented here of fers useful indications for the creation of such a methodological model of IC.15 First of all, solid theoretical foundations are needed to define IC in terms of its constituent components. In this respect, although most IC experts and researchers agree that the development of the competence is essentially unpredictable, invaluable input could come from relating the IC model to hypotheses about the learning processes involved in IC acquisition. More generally, the model should place the utmost emphasis on the definition of teaching objectives since they may provide an essential link between theory and teaching practice. In this respect, a valuable solution suggested by the present research is to define linguistic and intercultural objectives around IC components. Moreover, the model should address the delicate and unresolved issue of the relationship between intercultural and communicative objectives, both in terms of acquisition and of pedagogical applications. Such an issue, perhaps less prominent in general educational contexts, is of primary importance for intercultural foreign language education, where a lack of integrating intercultural objectives with existing linguistic objectives on the theoretical terrain might be a reason why intercultural competence is not regularly pursued in foreign language classrooms. 15

An attempt can be found in Borghetti (2011).


Finally, this study has highlighted the necessity for such a model to of fer a classification of methodological directions which, unlike detail collections of pre-set activities, foreign language teachers can adopt to prepare their courses and conceive original educational pathways in line with both the goals of intercultural foreign language education and the specific teaching context they work in.

References Adler, P. (1974). ‘Beyond Cultural Identity: Ref lection upon Cultural and Multicultural Man’, Topics in Culture Learning 2, 23–41. Balboni, P.E. (2006). Intercultural Communicative Competence: A Mode.l Perugia: Guerra. Bennett, M.J. (1993). ‘Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity’. In Paige, R.M. (ed.), Education for the Intercultural Experience, 21–71. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: David McKay. Borghetti, C. (2011). ‘How to Teach it? Proposal for a Methodological Model of Intercultural Competence’. In Witte, A. and Harden, T. (eds), Intercultural Competence: Concepts, Challenges, Evaluations, 141–60. Oxford: Peter Lang. Borghetti, C. (2008). Un Modello Metodologico per l’Insegnamento Interculturale della Lingua Straniera. Dalla Pratica Didattica alla Generazione Teorica. PhD thesis. National University of Ireland, Galway. Brislin, R.W. and Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural Communication Training: An Introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Byram, M. (1989). Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. and Zarate, G. (1994). Definitions, Objectives and Assessment of SocioCultural Competence. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Byram, M. (2009). ‘Evaluation and/or Assessment of Intercultural Competence’. In Hu, A. and Byram, M. (eds), Intercultural Competence and Foreign Language Learning: Models, Empiricism, Assessment, 215–34. Berlin: Gunter Narr Verlag. Byram, M. (2008). From Foreign Language Education to Education for Intercultural Citizenship. Essays and Ref lections. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

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Byram, M. and Morgan, C. (1994). Teaching-and-Learning Language-and-Culture. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. and Zarate, G. (1995). Young People Facing Dif ference: Some Proposal for Teachers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Camilleri, G.A. (2002). How Strange! The Use of Anecdotes in the Development of Intercultural Competence. Graz: Council of Europe. Chen, G.and Starosta, W.J. (1996). ‘Intercultural Communicative Competence: A Synthesis’, Communication Yearbook, 19, 353–83. Deardorf f, D.K. (2006). ‘Identification and Assessment of Intercultural Competence as a Student Outcome of Internalization’, Journal of Studies in International Education 10(3), 241–66. Fantini, A.E. (2000). ‘A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural Competence’. In SIT Occasional Paper Series 25–42. Brattleboro, VT, accessed 4 January 2011. Fantini, A.E. (1997). ‘Developing Intercultural Competence: A Process Approach Framework’. In Fantini, A.E. (ed.), New Ways in Teaching Culture, 40–4. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Gardner, G.H. (1962). ‘Cross Cultural Communication’, The Journal of Social Psychology, 58, 241–56. Gaston, J. (2005). Cultural Awareness Teaching Techniques. Maine: Pro Lingua Associates. Hoselitz, B.F. (1954). ‘Problems of Adapting and Communicating Modern Techniques to Less Developed Areas’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 2(4), 249–68. Knapp, K. and Knapp-Potthof f, A. (1987). ‘Instead of an Introduction: Conceptual Issues in Analysing Intercultural Communication’. In Knapp, K., Enninger, W. and Knapp-Potthof f, A. (eds), Analysing Intercultural Communication 1–13. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (1998b). ‘Teaching along the Cultural Faultline’. In Lange, D.L. Klee, C.A., Paige, M.R. and Yershova, Y.A. (eds), Culture as the Core: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Culture Teaching and Learning in the Second Language Curriculum. Selected Conference Proceedings, 15–31. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota. Kramsch, C. (1998b). ‘The Privilege of the Intercultural Speaker’. In Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds), Language Teaching in Intercultural Perspective. Approaches through Drama and Ethnography, 16–31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pursuing Intercultural and Communicative Goals in the Language Classroom 359 Lantolf, J.P. (1999). ‘Second Culture Acquisition: Cognitive considerations’. In Hinkel, E. (ed.), Culture in Second Language Teaching, 28–46. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pavlenko, A. and Lantolf, J.P. (2000). ‘Second Language Learning as Participation and the (re)Construction of Selves’. In Lantolf, J.P. (ed.), Socio-cultural Theory and Second Language Learning, 155–77. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Risager, K. (2007). Language and Culture Pedagogy: From a National to a Trans national Paradigm. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Samovar, L.A. and Porter, R.E. (2004). Communication between Cultures. Fifth Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Seelye, H.N. (1994). Teaching Culture: Strategies for Intercultural Communication. Chicago, IL: National Textbook Company. Spitzberg, B.H. (2000). ‘A Model of Intercultural Communication Competence’. In Samovar, L.A. and Porter, R.E. (eds), Intercultural Communication: A Reader, 375–87. Ninth Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Part Five

Autonomous Learning and the Portfolio



1 Introducción En el contexto educativo actual, se entiende por competencia docente el conjunto de conocimientos del profesorado sobre la materia que imparte junto con el desarrollo de habilidades docentes, comunicativas, profesionales, interculturales y de autoformación, además de una actitud de respeto hacia los estudiantes, hacía sí mismo y hacia la institución en la que trabaja. Es cierto que, para poder alcanzar el nivel óptimo de formación en cuanto a contenidos sobre la materia que imparte, el profesor se vale de la formación teórico-práctica a través de la formación recibida en los centros universitarios. Sin embargo, para saber más de su propia actitud, o potenciar aspectos positivos de su acción docente con ese tipo de formación no le es suficiente; para alcanzar dichos objetivos es conveniente partir de la observación, la ref lexión, la introspección y, por último, la autoevaluación. En la formación inicial del profesorado se han de incorporar metodologías didácticas que faciliten el desarrollo de la competencia ref lexiva con el fin de que estos puedan introducir la ref lexión como un elemento más de su práctica docente. En este trabajo se propone el portafolio docente como la herramienta que puede ayudar al profesor en formación a encaminar ese proceso de toma de conciencia sobre su propia evolución que le ha de proporcionar cambios significativos en su práctica docente.

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El objetivo de este estudio es, pues, caracterizar las ventajas e inconvenientes que reporta el empleo del portafolio como herramienta formativa para sus usuarios, profesores en formación.

2 Corpus; Objeto de Estudio En este artículo se presenta un estudio exploratorio de diferentes tipos de portafolios con el fin de extraer las categorías que se aplicarán, en trabajos futuros, a la totalidad de los datos manejados. Se ha procedido de este modo por trabajar con portafolios de diferente procedencia, lo que no nos permite asegurar que sus características sean totalmente coincidentes; aunque por la experiencia de varios cursos tutorizando portafolios sí se intuye que la mayoría de sus rasgos, en cuanto a las ventajas y los inconvenientes que los portafolios presentan como herramienta de formación, serán comunes a muchos de ellos. Por un lado, contamos con un total de 90 portafolios del Máster de formación de profesores de ELE IL3 – Universitat de Barcelona (desde el curso 2003–2004); además, 300 Portafolios de lenguas de futuros maestros, de la Universidad de Barcelona (desde el curso 2004–2005). Otra fuente de datos ha sido el Portafolio Ref lexivo del Profesor (Pujolà y González 2008) – de ahora en adelante PRP –. Dicho portafolio, nace con la idea de apoyar la formación continua, de forma autónoma, a profesores de español como lengua extranjera . Por tanto, como se aprecia en la tabla (25), el número total del corpus es amplio y variado en su procedencia: futuros docentes en formación inicial, docentes en formación de tercer ciclo y docentes no vinculados a cursos reglados pero con experiencia docente.

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El portafolio de formación desde el punto de visa del formando Tabla 25 Corpus de análisis Tipo de Portafolio

Procedencia

Número de portafolios

Portafolio de futuros profesores en formación inicial

Universidad de Barcelona

300

Portafolio de formación de profesores de ELE

IL3, Universidad de Barcelona

90

Portafolio Ref lexivo del Profesor (profesores con experiencia).

Blogs públicos

12

3 Fundamentación Teórica Los portafolios cuentan con una historia de peso en otras profesiones, y en cursos de redacción para uso de los estudiantes. Sin embargo, los portafolios se popularizaron en la carrera del magisterio en la década de los ochenta (Lyons 1999) al dar cabida a las distintas formas en que el profesor ref lexiona sobre su enseñanza con el fin de descubrir su propia identidad como docente y transformarla en aquellos aspectos que considere pertinentes. Es esta la cualidad distintiva del portafolio de formación, la ref lexión al servicio de la toma de conciencia de la propia competencia docente y la disposición al cambio, a la transformación. El portafolio de formación puede ser definido como una carpeta docente que recoge una selección de materiales, llamadas muestras o evidencias, con la intención de dar cuenta del aprendizaje realizado en un proceso de formación, ref lexionar sobre ello y evaluar la transformación efectuada, sobre todo en el sistema de creencias sobre el proceso de enseñar – aprender. La ref lexión promovida en el portafolio se concibe como el proceso que lleva a su autor a examinar sus propios valores y creencias sobre la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de lenguas, con el fin de que pueda asumir más responsabilidad sobre sus actuaciones docentes (Korthagen 2001, Farrell 2004).

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4 Marco Teórico en el que se Inscribe el Portafolio Docente Se debe a Lewin (1946) la acuñación del término investigación – acción, para describir un sistema de investigación que liga el enfoque experimental de la ciencia social con programas de acción social que respondan a problemas concretos. Este concepto pasa al ámbito de la educación de la mano de Stenhouse (1984). Así pues, la investigación en la acción propugna que el docente pueda llevar a cabo una investigación sistemática sobre su propia acción educativa con el objetivo de mejorarla. Desde esta óptica, el docente es investigador y observador. En tanto que investigador, se plantea un problema que observar y resolver en su acción pedagógica; propone acciones que él observa en su quehacer pedagógico y las analiza para resolver el problema planteado. El portafolio de formación se nutre de este planteamiento epistemológico y metodológico, pero se alimenta también de los presupuestos teóricos de la práctica ref lexiva, heredera de los enfoques metodológicos de la investigación en la acción. Schön (1987), en su teoría de la práctica ref lexiva, construye la figura de un docente que ref lexiona sobre su práctica de enseñanza con el fin de transformarla, y considerando que la investigación está al servicio de la docencia. Esta premisa es la clave desde la que debe entenderse el apogeo del portafolio como instrumento de formación. Se aboga por un docente ref lexivo que desde la docencia indague en las teorías existentes para aplicarlas a la problemática observada, por lo que se rompe la relación vertical entre teoría y práctica. Esta forma de concebir al docente lo capacita, como ya había propugnado la investigación en la acción, para identificar sus problemas o dificultades profesionales y ref lexionar sobre ellos. Es de este modo que el docente es el verdadero protagonista de la creación de conocimiento y es quien, mediante la ref lexión sobre la práctica, puede crear y construir, especialmente si lo hace en colaboración con otros colegas, ese conocimiento pedagógico (Cano 2005). Por otra parte, la visión que subyace del docente está acorde con una concepción de la enseñanza centrada en los procesos cognitivos, en el papel activo de los protagonistas del proceso de enseñanza –aprendizaje en la


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construcción de conocimiento, en la concepción de la evaluación como un instrumento formativo y de mejora. Asimismo, con el portafolio se construyen aprendizajes significativos en tanto que enlazan sustantivamente con los conocimientos previos del docente. Además, se pueden elaborar procesos de andamiaje, pues el portafolio permite la existencia de un mentor que guíe el proceso de construcción de ese nuevo conocimiento (Cano 2005). Asimismo, la herramienta fundamental para abordar el portafolio es la escritura, por lo que cognitivamente, el portafolio es heredero de una concepción de la escritura como formativa, heurística y epistémica. El ser humano emplea el lenguaje para construir conocimiento en su función dialéctica, esto es, en el proceso de composición que le lleva a materializar una idea. Quiere esto decir que la escritura tiene un importante papel formativo en la creación de conocimiento, por lo que puede afirmarse que texto y conocimiento establecen una relación de doble dirección (Beugrande 1984). Es en el proceso de composición llevado a cabo por el escritor donde puede hablarse de función formativa de la escritura y esto es lo que propugna el portafolio como herramienta básica de formación. La escritura se convierte, por cuanto tiene de función heurística y epistémica, en el utensilio más eficaz para alcanzar lo propugnado: dibujar la propia identidad como docente, ref lexionar sobre ello y construir conocimiento. Por último, el portafolio se alimenta también de investigaciones en torno a creencias, representaciones o el concepto mismo de currículo oculto. Así, debe relacionarse con el apogeo de las historias de vida, cuyo fin es permitir a los docentes comprender la incidencia que valores y creencias tienen en la interpretación de sus situaciones educativas (Vargas 2008). En cualquier caso, el portafolio del docente puede considerarse desde tres puntos de vista: a) Como conjunto de documentos y datos o credencial que convalidan la propia autoridad docente, como un modo de evaluación docente, mediante un conjunto de criterios y se lo considera responsable o no para estar al frente de una clase. b) Como un conjunto de premisas sobre la enseñanza –aprendizaje. c) Como la posibilidad de realizar una experiencia de aprendizaje genuina y ref lexiva. El portafolio como andamiaje para una formación docente

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ref lexiva. En lugar de exhibir títulos y diplomas, el docente se sitúa en el centro de su proceso de enseñanza – aprendizaje, y desde ahí define y defiende la autoridad de un título. Es esta función formativa del portafolio la que nos interesa en este artículo y en la que nos centraremos.

5 La Estructura del Portafolio El portafolio docente no tiene una estructura preconfigurada – como pudiera tener el portafolio para la enseñanza de lenguas. Sin embargo, para ser considerado como tal deberá, al menos, tener dos componentes esenciales: 1. Muestras o evidencias de enseñanza o aprendizaje 2. Una ref lexión sobre lo que dicha muestra supone para el profesor, en su concepción de la enseñanza – aprendizaje. Los portafolios con los que estamos más familiarizados incluyen la siguiente estructura: 1. Punto de partida: incluye el estado del profesor al inicio de elaboración del portafolio y los objetivos que se propone alcanzar. 2. Muestras o evidencias del proceso que se lleva a cabo. 3. Ref lexión sobre las muestras. 4. Documento final: se escribe en el momento en que se decide que se ha alcanzado el objetivo o para hacer público el documento para su discusión o evaluación.


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6 ¿Qué son las Muestras o Evidencias? Pueden considerarse muestras de un portafolio los planes de clase preparados por el profesor, las actividades de enseñanza llevadas a cabo, las lecturas especializadas para ampliar información sobre aspectos concretos de su profesión, notas de seminarios o congresos, programaciones de cursos, actas de reuniones entre colegas, resultados de aprendizaje de sus estudiantes, etc.

7 ¿Qué se Entiende por Ref lexión? La ref lexión propugnada desde el paradigma en que se entiende el portafolio no es estática, sino que implica una acción y un cambio. Para Dewey (1938), el pensamiento ref lexivo comprende, en un primer momento, un estado de duda, vacilación, perplejidad, dificultad mental, en el que se origina el pensamiento; a continuación, un acto de búsqueda, de pesquisa, investigación, para encontrar material que disipe la duda, resuelva y ponga fin a la perplejidad. El portafolio se considera la herramienta que permite potenciar una ref lexión activa a partir de las actuaciones e ideas propias, por lo que el docente ha de ser capaz de indagar en sus propias ideas para encontrar la razón que justifique o censure su actuación, y de este modo actuar en consecuencia, reajustando y transformándola. Es al explicitar y verbalizar esas relaciones cuando se inicia el proceso de ref lexión que permite explicarse a sí mismo y a los demás la razón de lo que son sus prácticas en el aula. La ref lexión se proyecta, pues, hacia atrás y hacia adelante: hacia atrás, entretejiendo el conocimiento de lo aprendido; y hacia adelante, a través de una nueva conciencia de las propias metas y propósitos para la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. La esencia de la ref lexión está presente en diversos momentos del portafolio, como en el apartado siguiente se verá.

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8 Análisis y Discusión La historia del portafolio como experiencia personal de aprendizaje, potente por el proceso ref lexivo que promueve, tal vez se observa mejor en los relatos de sus propios autores. Es a partir de la voz de sus autores que conocemos las dificultades que conlleva iniciar un proceso de formación basado en la ref lexión, las ventajas y los inconvenientes de la herramienta, a la vez que también son ellos mismos los que informan de sus progresos formativos gracias al trabajo ref lexivo que realizan. Por tanto, la información que se presenta es una sistematización, a partir de los datos, sobre las impresiones que el uso del portafolio provoca en sus usuarios. Conocerlas ayudará a un trabajo de tutorización más profundo y exhaustivo para poder dar una retroalimentación eficaz, que conecte con sus apreciaciones. 8.1 Ventajas A continuación se presentan algunos de los aspectos positivos que los autores han mencionado en sus documentos. 8.1.1 El portafolio fomenta la ref lexión de modo recurrente La gran ventaja del portafolio está en su esencia como documento que fomenta la ref lexión. Dicha operación cognitiva tiene lugar en diferentes momentos a lo largo del portafolio. En realidad, hemos podido constatar marcas de dicha ref lexión por parte del docente en cuatro momentos diferentes de la gestación del portafolio: 1. El proceso de ref lexión en el portafolio se inicia desde el momento en que el docente decide iniciar su elaboración al comprometerse con un intento de desarrollo profesional.


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Véase un ejemplo (1) de la ref lexión que implica el inicio de elaboración de un portafolio por parte de un profesor de español. 1. Considero que la ref lexión y la formación continua son pilares básicos para un profesor de idiomas. Mi propósito era no dejar de lado esto cuando acabara el Máster y creo que hacer el PRP es una buena forma de seguir adelante con el proceso de aprendizaje iniciado hace un año. Quería hacer algo concreto, una actividad tangible, para que ese propósito no fuera solamente una buena intención que nunca se materializa. Hacer el PRP me muestra a mí mismo que estoy haciendo lo que me había propuesto. En cualquier caso, revisaré la labor hecha con el PRP y decidiré entonces si es útil o no para mí y, en consecuencia, si sigo o no adelante con él. El profesor deja constancia de la necesidad de hacer tangible la ref lexión, de compartirla y revisarla, por lo que es muy consciente de la relevancia del proceso de formación que comporta la herramienta. 2. El proceso ref lexivo continúa cuando el docente ha de seleccionar qué evidencias incorpora en su portafolio para mostrarse a sí mismo como docente. La decisión de por qué una actividad merece ser seleccionada es una cuestión que implica desestimar otras actividades que también pueden resultar formativas: 2. El Portafolio del Certificado, que seguidamente se presenta, está basado en los contenidos que como profesora más me han hecho ref lexionar y evolucionar en mi práctica docente habitual. Siguiendo este objetivo, este trabajo está compuesto de cinco muestras distintas, que se pueden agrupar en tres temas: el papel del profesor, y del estudiante en el aula ELE; las formas del pasado, con sus dificultades; y la expresión escrita, creación de textos y corrección. (IL3) Seleccionar implica dotar a la decisión tomada de mayor validez en el proceso seguido; por el contrario, desestimar evidencias demuestra que hay aspectos de la práctica docente sobre los que no vale la pena entrar a

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ref lexionar, bien porque ya se han superado, bien porque en ese momento no son significativos para su autor. 3. Se ha de tener también en cuenta que la muestra se selecciona por diferentes motivos: como prueba de un éxito alcanzado o como una carencia no superada. Se espera que el profesor ref lexione acerca de qué le puede aportar la inclusión de dicha muestra en su portafolio. 3. Esta muestra me parece interesante para ref lexionar, por varios motivos: en primer lugar, porque define una estrategia clara para la enseñanza; asimismo, porque muestra cómo el estudiante aprende; y en tercer lugar, porque me conduce a ref lexionar sobre el papel del profesor, y en particular, sobre el que tiene en el aula de ELE. (IL3) 4. Se ref lexiona también en la valoración final, esto es, en el momento en el que el docente en formación ve cumplidos los objetivos que se había propuesto al inicio y decide que puede comenzar otro proceso con nuevos objetivos, y así sucesivamente. 4. Tras haber ref lexionado sobre las cinco muestras seleccionadas, es necesario hacer una autoevaluación del proceso formativo llevado a cabo hasta el momento, en el que se haga referencia a mi evolución tanto formativa como profesional. (IL3) Los ejemplos expuestos muestran que el proceso de ref lexión es algo constante, está presente en el mismo hecho de ver la necesidad de elaborar el portafolio, en la selección de las muestras que se van a incorporar, en la información que puede extraerse en su análisis y culmina con el cierre del portafolio. La ref lexión no es, pues, una de las partes de que se integra el portafolio, sino que es su razón de ser. Esta ventaja permite abordar una dificultad metodológica que comporta el uso del portafolio: ¿qué es ref lexionar?, ¿se puede enseñar a ref lexionar? La respuesta se halla al explicitar esta primera ventaja del uso del portafolio. Ref lexionar es hacer visible lo invisible, tomar conciencia de la acción, saber por qué y para qué se actúa de un modo determinado, saber explicitar los criterios de una acción. Dicho de otro modo, la ref lexión


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está superestructural y macroestructuralmente en el portafolio, por cuanto el empleo de dicha herramienta no puede sino promover dicha operación cognitiva. 8.1.2 El portafolio propicia la necesaria imbricación entre proceso y producto de aprendizaje Otra ventaja manifiesta en los portafolios analizados es que fomentan la reconexión entre proceso y producto. Los mejores portafolios son los que incluyen no sólo la documentación de la enseñanza, sino también la documentación del aprendizaje del docente. Veamos a continuación un ejemplo de la introducción que hace un docente en formación inicial en la primera entrega de su portafolio. 5. Este trabajo consta de un punto de partida donde el alumno expone sus creencias iniciales, su manera de entender la enseñanza de un idioma extranjero, aquello que espera del curso y la línea profesional que querrá tomar. A continuación vendrá el grueso del trabajo: la exposición, evaluación y análisis conceptual de 4 muestras que me parecen importantes durante mi proceso de formación. La inclusión de ciertas muestras puede sorprender. No puedo separar la creación de este Portafolios con mi propia experiencia personal y profesional y, sobre todo, mis intereses generales. Sé que mi formación previa me hace muy sensible a temas como la multiculturalidad, la identidad o el etnocentrismo. Estos son temas que sin duda han formado parte de mi vida intelectual y no debe sorprender que vuelvan a aparecer en algunos casos, cuando el lector revise alguno de estos folios. A continuación se expone un plan de acción. Ahora puedo escribir que mis ideas preconcebidas (que se encuentran en el apartado del ‘punto de partida’ han variado en algunos casos. En otras ocasiones, si bien no he cambiado demasiado mi opinión, sí he dejado una puerta abierta para la duda y la sospecha. He observado el plan de acción como un nuevo ‘punto de partida’ que he escrito después de asimilar ciertos conceptos teóricos que habrán inf luido en mi formación de manera más o menos profunda. Los cambios no han sido radicales. (IL3)

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El estudiante pone de manifiesto algunas cuestiones que difícilmente se podrían apreciar con otras formas de evaluación: en su portafolio expone lo que para él ha sido materia de aprendizaje, lo que le permite demostrarse a sí mismo la asimilación de los objetivos de aprendizaje; además es él el que evalúa la validez de esos contenidos para su desarrollo profesional, a la vez que relaciona sus creencias previas con los conceptos aprendidos y pone de manifiesto cómo todo ello le ha supuesto entrar en conf licto consigo mismo. De la resolución de ese conf licto entre lo que creía antes y sus nuevas dudas es de donde surgirá el conocimiento que le permitirá evolucionar. Por tanto, el uso del portafolio evidencia que este cumple con la validez de consecuencia, pues permite mejorar la enseñanza y convertir a su autor en mejor docente. Es decir, si los portafolios representan los modos como los docentes han progresado, y si los portafolios han tenido un impacto positivo sobre el trabajo en el aula, entonces satisfacen la validez señalada. 8.1.3 El portafolio institucionaliza normas de colaboración, ref lexión y análisis La capacidad de analizar el proceso de formación que se está llevando a cabo es algo que el tutor ha de ir incorporando en su trabajo, de modo que las aportaciones o sugerencias que le haga al formando reviertan en una progresiva toma de conciencia del potencial que este posee para poder llevar a cabo análisis más profundos. 6. El proceso de aprendizaje que se dio mediante estos comentarios del tutor, fue muy interesante, porque me sirvieron, no sólo para reformular la tarea, sino para ‘desencasillarme’ de un proceder que estaba haciendo prácticamente sin darme cuenta y creyendo, además, que lo hacía bien. Relacionando las ideas que él me daba (sobre todo las marcadas en amarillo) y las propuestas de algunas de mis clases, descubrí una falencia que no esperaba encontrar para nada a través de esta asignatura opcional (IL3).


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El formando ha tomado como punto de ref lexión la corrección efectuada por su tutor. Ante un primer momento de no querer aceptar la valoración efectuada, ref lexiona sobre la aportación del profesor, y de este modo, varía radicalmente su percepción. 8.1.4 La elaboración de un portafolio requiere una actitud humilde Ser riguroso en la elaboración del portafolio y analizar la información recogida es un acto de valentía y humildad para el que no siempre se está preparado. 7. Tanto el ejercicio de autoevaluación como el prácticum que he presentado en las muestras me han llevado a realizar un profundo análisis y una atenta ref lexión acerca de mis creencias y mis actuaciones. He llegado a sentir que quizás mis ‘investigaciones’ en clase son sólo un modo a través del cual busco una confirmación de la idea de que lo que estoy haciendo está bien y que en el fondo no estoy de verdad dispuesta a poner en crisis mis creencias y a modificarlas porque es muy difícil. Pero esta sensación, que considero humana, no es definitiva. Quizás sea el ref lejo de que a veces somos débiles, de que veces es muy dura la crítica, sobre todo la que nos hacemos a nosotros mismos, y de que es muy duro mantener una postura ref lexiva y abierta a la evolución y al cambio. Y a pesar de todo ello, no he decidido tirar la toalla, sino que sigo muy entusiasmada con la idea de seguir adelante con el aprendizaje. (IL3) Los docentes que se enfrentan por primera vez a la labor de armar un portafolio reconocen las dudas que les surgen y las hacen públicas: desde el primer momento se muestra públicamente la incertidumbre ante la novedad de la tarea.

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8.2 Inconvenientes Aun siendo muchas las ventajas que puede aportar el uso de portafolios, también se han de tener en cuenta algunos inconvenientes. A continuación mostramos algunas de las desventajas según se desprenden de los portafolios con los que hemos trabajado. 8.2.1 Representación errónea de lo que es un portafolio El gran peligro es que los portafolios puedan convertirse en recopilaciones de apuntes. En sentido técnico el portafolio tiene que superar esta primera acepción y no limitarse a presentar actividades de aula sin una justificación que relacione esos contenidos con el proceso de formación del autor del portafolio. 8. En clase hubo mucha gente que se interesó por el tema de mi exposición, en él se trataron algunas cuestiones que mis compañeros no tenían demasiado claras por eso he creído conveniente ref lejarlas en mi portafolio. A continuación presento las diferencias entre los términos que despertaron más interés entre el grupo. (UB) El ejemplo (8) muestra como al formando le preocupa más demostrar su superioridad de conocimientos frente al resto del grupo que extraer las ventajas que le ha reportado esa actividad. Es evidente que no acaba de ver el significado de su propio portafolio, ya que incorporar los conceptos novedosos para sus compañeros no revierte en su formación. 8.2.2 Confusión entre ref lexionar y fustigarse En algunos portafolios, especialmente en los de los estudiantes de Formación del Profesorado se ve una tendencia en las ref lexiones a limitarse a expresar sus carencias y dificultades. Los estudiantes se centran en sus aspectos negativos sin percibir su evolución en relación al dominio de la lengua.


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9. Tras ver los textos que he ido escribiendo a lo largo del curso he llegado a una conclusión: a partir de ahora sé que debo mirar más mis escritos, utilizar técnicas más apropiadas al receptor y no limitarme a escribir como a mí me plazca, debe ser una información atractiva de leer y en el nivel que exija cada ocasión; he de adecuarme al contexto y a los conocimientos del lector sobre el tema. Tengo la sensación de que son muchos los aspectos que no he considerado. No sé si podré llegar a tenerlos todos en cuenta, creo que cada vez me cuesta más escribir algo que sea medianamente comprensible. Asimismo ocurre con la expresión oral, aunque con ella no siento tanta dificultad reconozco que me falta la palabra apropiada en el momento justo. Algo que tiene solución, aunque requiera mucho tiempo y esfuerzo. Debo leer más a menudo y seleccionar un tipo de lectura apropiada para tal efecto. (UB) Para algunos estudiantes (9) es difícil percibir su evolución a lo largo del curso; una vez detectadas sus dificultades estas pasan a ser prioritarias. El trabajo hecho para superarse queda minimizado al no obtener los resultados esperados, todo ello les da una visión catastrofista del proceso y así lo ref lejan en sus ref lexiones. Una explicación posible a por qué este tipo de información se presenta más en este tipo de portafolio que en el resto pueda ser por la falta de experiencia de estos estudiantes en procesos ref lexivos. 8.2.3 Dificultad para distinguir entre descripción, análisis, ref lexión En algunos portafolios sus autores se extienden en la descripción de las actividades realizadas y apenas se detienen en su análisis por lo que no pueden llegar a un nivel de ref lexión óptimo. 10. Invertí mucho tiempo en las lecturas, sobre todo en la búsqueda de la información relacionada con el tema. La información debía ser apropiada a lo que yo tenía en mente, a lo que quería transmitir. Después fotocopié las páginas que me interesaban. Aún conservo las fotocopias en casa, por si acaso debo cambiar alguna cosa.

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De todo el proceso lo que más me ha costado es escoger el tema. Sin ánimo de querer ser original busqué algo que me satisficiera, algo de lo que tuviera un poco más de conocimiento personal y no solo aquel que adquiero leyendo los libros. Me llevó casi tres días seleccionarlo, otros cuántos más en la biblioteca para buscar lo que quería y otros tantos más llegar a hacer lo que es ahora. Buscar las palabras apropiadas, seleccionar frases importantes, omitir información superf lua… (UB) Si el autor del portafolio se limita a describir cómo realizó la actividad o a presentarla es difícil que ese trabajo de escritura le sea útil. Es necesario ir más allá, que explicite los procesos cognitivos que dados en el proceso de realización de la actividad. Si no ref lexiona sobre ellos y no af loran es difícil asegurar que haya surgido algún tipo de aprendizaje significativo en el desarrollo de la misma. 8.2.4 Incomodidad en el uso del portafolio por lo que tiene de exhibición Como señala Shulman (1999), el peligro del portafolio es que este se convierta en una mera exhibición. Si el concepto de exhibición predomina, prevalece la ostentación de los logros alcanzados, por encima de una actitud ref lexiva sobre el camino andado. Muchos de los que arman portafolios hablan sobre las dificultades de este proceso. Así, en ocasiones, las personas se sienten incómodas si se les pide que confeccionen una especie de aviso publicitario sobre ellas mismas. Ello puede apreciarse en algunos comentarios de los formandos que se muestran reacios a que su portafolio tenga una versión pública a otros lectores que no sea su tutor. 11. A veces, cuando tengo que escribir en el portafolio, caigo en la trampa de una falta de honestidad, y escribo lo que el tutor quiere ver escrito. Luego, me doy cuenta de que de este modo el único engañado soy yo mismo, pues el portafolio es en sí mismo una herramienta de autoevaluación. Será por mis propias creencias, demasiado arraigadas, que no me acabo de creer que el tutor no me vaya a juzgar. Además, me incomoda hablar constantemente de mí y de mis angustias como


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profesor, no sé, a veces, me parece que es una exhibición o, peor aún, considerarse el ombligo del mundo. Es verdad que focalizar la atención en aspectos de mi propia docencia me ha ayudado a mejorar como profesor, pero todo este proceso de ponerlo por escrito y luego compartirlo me parece a veces un ejercicio de vanidad. (IL3) 8.2.5 Resistencia a desarrollar un aprendizaje autónomo Otro de los objetivos es lograr la autonomía, con un compromiso y con una actitud autocrítica. Si se autoevalúan aprenden a conocerse, y a ver cuáles son sus debilidades y fortalezas. A mayor conocimiento, mayor amplitud de criterios. No obstante, en ocasiones se desprende cierta resistencia ante el aprendizaje autónomo. El rol del profesor como el que imparte la enseñanza todavía está arraigado: 12. Las ref lexiones han sido útiles para confirmar que el proceso de aprendizaje que normalmente llevo a cabo es óptimo y he podido, de este modo, explicitar mis potencialidades como profesor. En mis clases, queda claro que pongo el énfasis en conceptos como autonomía en el aprendizaje. El aprendiente deja de ser visto como un receptor pasivo de los conocimientos, para concebirse como el protagonista y agente del proceso de aprendizaje; el aula es considerada como el espacio social en el que se produce el aprendizaje y la interacción. […] En los comentarios de mi tutora a mi portafolio he echado de menos alguna pauta más concreta sobre qué es lo que se esperaba de mí. Me he sentido como alguno de mis estudiantes cuando tras entregarle un texto con mis anotaciones se ha quedado esperando que le dé una calificación numérica a su trabajo. (IL3) Los formandos perciben que la tutorización del portafolio no se ha de limitar a calificar el trabajo hecho, esperan del tutor algo más que sugerencias o preguntas que inviten a continuar ref lexionando sobre las muestras. Por ello, es revelador el ejemplo proporcionado (12). A pesar de saber que con sus estudiantes este profesor actúa como lo hace con él su tutor eso no le satisface plenamente: se reconoce en su rol de estudiante como dependiente.

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8.2.6 Ambigüedad sobre la función del portafolio Una de las tensiones que supone la herramienta del portafolio es si considerarlo como herramienta para el desarrollo profesional o para la evaluación. Dicho de otro modo, ¿deben considerarse los portafolios como una herramienta transformadora o técnica? Esta cuestión plantea respuestas diferentes. En los portafolios ligados a cursos de formación se espera que el portafolio sea una herramienta que facilite la transformación del autor. Pero también es posible que los estudiantes lo vean solo como herramienta para la evaluación de sus aprendizajes. En este caso, el estudiante percibe el portafolio como el medio en el que ha de exhibir los conocimientos alcanzados: 13. Ahora una vez llegados al final del curso puedo decir que la información que contiene este portafolio demuestra que he superado los objetivos que se habían propuesto para esta asignatura. Las diferentes actividades que he aportado espero que así lo demuestren. (UB) Los estudiantes de formación inicial perciben el portafolio como una herramienta de evaluación y les cuesta llegar a ver que también les puede ser útil como una dinámica de trabajo que pueda revertir en su propio desarrollo profesional. 8.2.7 Dedicación excesiva para poder armar un portafolio Otro peligro es el tiempo que supone elaborar un portafolio. Este requiere mucha dedicación, no solo en la fase inicial de descripción de objetivos o recogida de evidencias, sino también en la fase de análisis de las muestras, en la interpretación de estas para la valoración de la práctica docente y en el nuevo planteamiento de objetivos a la luz del análisis realizado. 14. Cada día cuando termino con las actividades de las diferentes asignaturas obligatorias, entro en el portafolio para anotar algunas ideas que me faciliten el trabajo final cuando me tenga que poner a redactar el documento definitivo. Me estoy dando cuenta de que llevar mis


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anotaciones al día me obliga a releer lo que he escrito previamente y a intentar relacionar las actividades de las diferentes asignaturas con el punto de partida del principio de curso. He de reconocer que hay momentos en los que me siento desbordada. (IL3) Son muchos los estudiantes que en su portafolio incluyen comentarios sobre el tiempo dedicado a elaborar su portafolio. Al inicio del curso puede parecerles fácil la ref lexión sobre lo que se está haciendo, pero pronto los estudiantes perciben que no basta con anotar algunas ideas para después elaborar un texto que demuestre que han ref lexionado sobre su docencia. El trabajo de armar su portafolio les obliga a dedicar más tiempo del previsto.

9 Conclusiones El portafolio como proceso que exige ref lexión permanente sobre la enseñanza y el aprendizaje contiene la promesa de obligar a una ref lexión más amplia sobre la educación de los propios docentes y su desarrollo profesional. Por tanto, la creación de un portafolio didáctico puede tener un efecto transformador a nivel social también; de ahí la importancia de conocer la herramienta y sus efectos en quien la usa. Tras el estudio exploratorio llevado a cabo podemos afirmar que los portafolios analizados presentan características comunes en cuanto a las ventajas e inconvenientes como herramienta de formación. Entre las ventajas señaladas, destaca el fomento de la ref lexión, de modo recurrente, por la estructura de la herramienta misma, lo que permite afirmar que dicha herramienta es válida para su objetivo. Cuenta también con la validez de consecuencia, pues, como se ha visto, propicia una mejora de la enseñanza, del docente y del aprendizaje. Asimismo, permite la constante imbricación entre el proceso y el producto de aprendizaje del formando, entendiendo que la docencia es una forma de pensamiento y opinión, en

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contra de la idea predominante de la docencia como conducta especializada. La docencia tampoco es una actividad efectuada de modo aislado e individual, sino que el portafolio institucionaliza normas de colaboración, ref lexión y análisis, sin miedo a que el docente se muestre con sus carencias e inquietudes, en constante formación. Entre los inconvenientes, el formando suele tener una representación errónea de lo que es elaborar un portafolio; lo que puede confundir ref lexionar con fustigarse. Por otro lado, puede dificultar distinguir descripción, análisis y ref lexión. Incluso, puede resistirse a desarrollar un aprendizaje autónomo y estar confundido sobre la función del portafolio en tanto que herramienta evaluativa. Asimismo, elaborar un portafolio tiene dos grandes inconvenientes en relación con su logística: la excesiva dedicación de tiempo que comporta así como la incomodidad de sentirse exhibido. Lo que se ha presentado es una sistematización, a partir de lo hallado en los datos, sobre las impresiones que el uso del portafolio provoca en sus usuarios. Conocerlas puede ayudar, sin duda, a un trabajo de tutorización más profundo y exhaustivo; entre otras razones, para dar una retroalimentación eficaz, que conecte con sus apreciaciones. Sin embargo, es necesario realizar otro tipo de estudios centrados en el análisis de la retroalimentación que los tutores ofrecen a sus estudiantes para obtener una visión global del proceso de formación que puede llevarse a cabo a través del portafolio.

Referencias bibliográficas Beaugrande, R. de (1984). Text Production: Toward a Science of Composition. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Cano, E. (2005). El Portafolios del Profesorado Universitario. Barcelona: Octaedro. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier. Farell, T.S.C. (2004). Ref lective Practice in Action. Thousand Claks: Corwin Press. Korthagen, F.A.J. (2001). Linking Practice and Theory: The Pedagogy of Realistic Teacher Education. London: LEA.


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Lewin, K. (1946). ‘Action-Research into Minority Problems’, Journal of Social Issues, 2, 34–46. Lyons, N. (comp.) (1999). El uso de Portafolios. Propuesta para un Nuevo Profesionalismo Docente. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu. Pujola, J.T. y González, V. (2008). ‘El uso del Portafolio para la Autoevaluación en la Formación Continua del Profesor’, Revista Marco ELE, 7, 77–98. Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the Ref lective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Shulman, L.S. (1999). ‘Portafolios del Docente: una Actividad Teórica’. En Lyons, N. (ed.), El uso de Portafolios: Propuesta Para un Nuevo Profesionalismo Docente, 44–62. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu. Stenhouse, L. (1984). Investigación y Desarrollo del Currículum. Madrid: Morata. Vargas, A. (2008). El Profesor como Escritor. Santiago de Cali: Programa editorial Universidad del Valle.

Patrick Farren

Autonomous Language Teaching: Pre-requisite to Autonomous Language Learning

1 Background and Rationale for Study In a recent report on the teaching of modern languages in post-primary schools in Ireland, the Inspectorate found ‘an over-reliance on textbooks and past examination papers’ (Inspection of Modern Languages, DES 2004). A survey carried out at NUI, Galway among educators (supervisors and mentors) and student-teachers supports this finding: 55 per cent of studentteachers and 50 per cent of mentors believed that teaching was ‘principally a matter of getting students through examinations’ (Farren 2008). Interestingly, however, a much higher percentage of respondents, 77 per cent of student-teachers and 100 per cent of mentors, believed that teaching should be about something quite dif ferent: it should involve learners taking a more active part in their learning by involving them in planning, monitoring and self-assessing – characteristics respondents associated with the ‘good’ language learner. The DES Inspectorate has argued that teachers need to encourage ‘greater learner autonomy’ (ibid.) and the White Paper, published almost ten years previously, implied this as well when it called for an ‘essential shift… from external examinations to internal assessment’ (DES 1995: 60) that includes ‘projects, orals, aurals and practical work’, and for formative assessment that is intended to be ‘an integral part of teaching and has a key part to play in a process that is intended to be learner-centred’ (ibid.: 59).

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2 Outline of Paper This paper addresses a concern about a lack of coordinated support being of fered to student-teachers in the context of the Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE),1 and by implication, a concern that student-teachers were not being supported in developing as autonomous teachers. The particular focus of this paper is on examining the impact of autonomous language teaching supported by the professional portfolio.2 A central premise of the study is that in order for autonomous language learning to take place there must first be autonomous language teaching. The context of the study will be outlined before a brief overview of key points in the literature about the ELP and autonomous language teaching and learning will be of fered.

3 Context of Study The paper is set in the context of modern language teacher education on the Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE), 2003–2005. The process has led to the development of a professional portfolio across the whole PGDE programme in NUI Galway. Interestingly, a professional portfolio is required by the Teaching Council of Ireland to form part of all PGDE programmes in Ireland from 2011. The traditional Leaving Certificate examination is mainly a terminal and written examination that pupils take at the end of two years of study.

1 2

From 2011 onwards the Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) is known as the Professional Diploma in Education (PDE). For an account of impact of autonomous language learning that made use of ELP see forthcoming paper in TEANGA (25), journal of the Irish Research Association for Applied Linguistics (IRAAL).

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This examination is a high-stakes examination that has the merit of of fering anonymity to all candidates and a level playing field. Generally, higher education institutions of fer places on courses to candidates based on a points’ system in this examination. Findings from a preliminary survey referred to above showed that PGDE educators had dif ferent expectations of student-teachers, e.g. several supervisors believed that student-teachers were often ‘obliged [by their mentors] to follow what [was] in situ…outdated methods’ (Farren 2008). While the traditional Leaving Certificate has had some merit in the past, there is need for the assessment process to support anticipated teaching and learning behaviour. In order for this to happen in the future a more coherent initial teacher education approach is needed. Student-teachers need to be supported in accepting responsibility for developing their own capacity and in supporting pupils in developing their capacity to make use of the target language that is, after all, the goal of language teaching and learning. In the spring of 2003, I came upon a version of the ELP, developed by the Centre for Language and Communications Studies at Trinity College Dublin for Irish post-primary schools that had been validated by the Council of Europe. It had recently been launched on the market as a ref lective process tool intended to mediate the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for teaching, learning and assessment. It was clear that the ELP was a catalyst that could help to bring about change in language learning.

4 The European Language Portfolio The ELP has two functions: a) reporting and b) pedagogical. In the Passport the learner records any significant intercultural experiences he/she has had, e.g. those achieved in formal contexts such as certified courses, formal language qualifications or intercultural experiences in informal contexts. The learner records his/her own language proficiency. The second part of

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the ELP is the Biography. This supports the development of the learner’s metacognitive capacity, i.e. planning, monitoring and self-assessing in the target language that is linked to a criterion-referenced system of descriptors drawn from the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR). The third part of the ELP is the Dossier. It supports the development of learner responsibility, e.g. he/she is expected to select pieces of evidence that demonstrate learning according to their preferred learning style(s). In short, the ELP supports the development of the learner’s self-awareness and identity as a language learner and language user. There is evidence in the literature that the ELP is an ef fective learning process tool. Ridley reported that it helped pupils to ‘apply their metacognitive knowledge ef fectively’ (Ridley 1997: 14), and the of ficial evaluation of the ELP carried out by Schärer found that the ELP: led pupils and teachers to ref lect on the reasons for learning languages, learning process, and the criteria by which learning might be evaluated. 68 per cent of pupils felt that the time they spent keeping an ELP was time well spent. 70 per cent of teachers found that the ELP was a useful tool for pupils, while 78 per cent found that it is a useful tool for teachers. (2000, in Little 2002: 184)

More recent literature supports this view; Kohonen (2006) claims that the CEFR of fers a new paradigm in language education, an actionoriented notion of communication. It of fers new goals in language education (CEFR 2001: 5; Byram 2003; Kaikkonen 2001; Kohonen 2006: 3). The language user is understood as a person who uses cognitive, emotional and volitional resources and abilities to achieve aims of communication (Kohonen 2007). Kohonen has argued that intercultural communicative competence involves the development of autonomy as a person in relation to others (ibid). All of the above are inherent in the ELP.


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5 Brief Overview of Literature on Autonomous Language Learning and Teaching 5.1 Independence and interdependence In the 1970s, the term autonomy referred to self-directed learning that was associated with learners working in isolation both from one another and from the teacher. However, in more recent literature the term is used to refer to self-directed learning that is associated with learning involving a social dimension (Thomson 1996; Kohonen 2000; Little 2001), and, by implication, ‘collaboration and interdependence’ (Benson 2001: 12). Indeed, several researchers argue that cognitive development and human interdependence are interlinked processes (Allwright 1990; Little 1995; Benson 2001). Vygotsky, in his theory of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), argued that social interaction was the basis for higher order cognitive development. He defined ZPD as: The distance between actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (Vygotsky 1978: 86)

Central to autonomous learning is the notion that learners have an active role in constructing knowledge (Terwell 1999: 195). Interestingly, Kohonen (2006) has argued that in ‘socio-cultural, socio-constructivist and experiential learning theories the pupil is understood as a person consisting of a self with a social identity and as a member of and participant in a society and culture.’ The learner here is understood as a ‘whole person’ who is called on to construct his/her own meanings ‘fostered through collaboration and social interaction’ (Kohonen 2006: 4). Thus, developing autonomy as a psychological capacity depends on ‘an internalization of a capacity to participate fully and critically in social interaction’ (Little 1996: 201). It is clear that there is a strong body of opinion that argues that cognitive development and social interaction go hand in hand. In the context

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of language learning, this implies that language proficiency can only be attained by learners making use of the target language to express their own meanings or messages that imply a social context. 5.2 Attitudinal dimension Acceptance of responsibility for expressing one’s meanings in the target language implies motivation. There is, therefore, an important attitudinal dimensional to language learning. Autonomous learning necessitates learners developing a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of learning (Little 1995; Macaro 1997). The inclusion of ‘I can’ self-assessment check-list statements in the ELP demonstrates how the ELP supports the development of self-awareness, self-confidence and a more positive attitude to language learning. 5.3 Critical ref lection Autonomy is not an absolute state (Little 1990; Thomson 1996), but involves the learner developing a capacity for detachment, critical ref lection and decision-making (Little 1991).This concept of capacity building is one that Macaro views as being integral to autonomous learning. He defines autonomous learning as an ability that is learned through knowing how to make decisions about the self as well as being allowed to make those decisions (Macaro 1997). This view resonates with Trim’s view (1978, cited in Benson, Voller 1997): an adaptive ability allowing learners to develop supporting structures within themselves. 5.4 Target language use Little has argued that ‘the successful practice of autonomy logically entails the interaction of target language learning and target language use’ (1999: 176). Because ‘metacognition and language use are so thoroughly


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interdependent’ (ibid.: 85), making use of the target language to construct meanings and to evaluate learning should be seen as interlinked processes. Naturally, appropriate support needs to be of fered by the teacher to achieve this aim. The act of constructing meanings in the target language implies that the learner develops his/her metacognitive capacity. By making decisions about the content and process of learning the learner is involved in making adjustments to his current understanding of how language behaves in dif ferent social contexts. The learner’s current declarative and procedural knowledge, metacognitive capacity, communicative and pragmatic strategies develop in conjunction with one another. The ‘I can’ self-assessment check lists in the ELP expressed in the target language support the learner in making use of the target language to ref lect on their learning. 5.5 Autonomous language teaching In order for learners to develop as autonomous language learners and, by implication, as autonomous users of the target language, it is first necessary that student-teachers develop as autonomous teachers and, by implication, as autonomous users of the target language in their teaching. Nunan (1992) has claimed that the notion of teacher as researcher of his practice is an important one in experiential learning. It involves ‘a ref lective awareness’ of one’s practice as teaching involves ‘making decisions regarding the learner’ (38). He believes that ‘mutual support and cooperation’ (ibid.) of colleagues is an essential part of ref lective teaching. According to Pollard, ‘the value of engaging in ref lective activity is almost always enhanced if it can be carried out in association with other colleagues’ (2005: 21). Clearly, critical ref lection and social interaction/collaboration have a central place in supporting autonomous language teaching, just as we have found they have in autonomous language learning. By supporting studentteachers in developing greater awareness of their teaching and learning beliefs and in critically ref lecting on their teaching, they are supported in developing in self-awareness, and, by implication, in their capacity to selfdirect and to accept responsibility for improving their teaching.

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6 Professional Portfolio Examining the tenets of the ELP inspired me to take the first steps in developing a teaching portfolio in the context of the PGDE that was aimed at supporting more autonomous teaching and at having a more transformative role than the traditional teaching practice file that had been characterized by a collection of lesson plans (Farren 2008). Prior to this study it had been common practice for student teachers to observe lessons for one week in the context of a primary and a post-primary school. The context of this study introduced the practice of student-teachers articulating their teaching and learning beliefs. They engaged in this process immediately after their school observations. I invited them to ref lect on and to draw on their observational experience as they went about articulating their teaching and learning beliefs. In addition, student-teachers were encouraged to keep a ref lective journal during the PGDE. This confidential journal was aimed at supporting student-teachers in developing their capacity to make sense of their teaching experience. They could draw on taught elements of the PGDE programme as they ref lected on their school experience. Below I outline the framework of the language teaching portfolio in the context of the PGDE (2003–2005).3 The dif ferent parts of the professional portfolio was inspired by those contained in the ELP. My justification for this was that it would support student-teachers in engaging in a similar process with pupils in the context of the ELP. 1. Passport a) Teaching and Learning beliefs: Student-teachers articulated their beliefs, values, attitudes and assumptions about language teaching and learning. By implication, this process supported student-teachers in developing their professional identity.

3

Later, as Coordinator of Professional Practice on the PGDE I had responsibility for coordinating the development of a professional portfolio for the PGDE as a whole – a process that was helped by this study.


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b) Scheme of work: In this student-teachers articulated their teaching and learning goals and intentions, likely directions course would take, representative samples of activities, anticipated challenges and possible solutions in the context of the classes they taught (Perrone 1999). 2. Biography Student-teachers engaged in critical ref lective writing after completing each unit/topic of teaching. Input support was of fered to them about the literature on critical ref lection and journal writing. A framework for writing was suggested: a) evaluation of previous unit of teaching/ learning, e.g. as a result of negotiating with learners about learning objectives and outcomes, activities, target language use, self-assessment by learners, cultural awareness, strategies and b) goals for next unit. 3. Dossier of Evidence Student-teachers were expected to show sample pieces of evidence of the development of their capacity to accept responsibility for teaching and for making use of formative assessment. The pedagogical project that formed part of the PGDE Modern Languages’ assessment process formed part of this evidence. It was aimed at supporting studentteachers in autonomous teaching. An oral-aural interview formed the other part of the PGDE assessment process and involved studentteachers by discussing their project with me as methodologist and with their target language tutor. Student-teachers were expected to show pieces of evidence that demonstrated how they had involved pupils in formative assessment and in developing their capacity to express their meanings in the target language. A useful component in any future professional portfolio would be to have student-teachers critically ref lect on the extent to which they had succeeded in achieving their goals, as well as on any transformations in their thinking, beliefs, values, attitudes and assumptions.

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7 A New Paradigm What we have said above suggests the need for a paradigm shift in the traditional understanding of language teaching. No longer can teaching be about teaching to the examination or learning be about learning of f by heart teacher’s knowledge in order to regurgitate it in the examination hall. What is required is that the teacher involves learners in developing the capacity to make decisions about the content and process of learning that is linked to target language use. As we have seen this can be done ‘through pupil-teacher negotiation (and through the pupil’s) involvement in decision-making’ (Macaro, 1997: 168) and target language use. Kohonen (2000) has suggested that autonomous learning can be supported by pupils developing their competence in the context of three areas: (1) ‘personal identity and self-direction, (2)…becoming skilled language learners and users who are also capable of evaluating their own proficiency and (3) monitoring and ref lecting on learning processes.’ In this instance Little’s expression ‘pedagogical dialogue in the here and now’ (2001: 51) succinctly encapsulates what should characterize teacher-learner relationship.

8 Action Research Approach An action research approach was seen as appropriate in the context of examining the impact of autonomous language teaching and learning. Among the principles of action research identified by Mills (2000) are that practitioners have the decision-making authority and are committed to professional development through systematic ref lection in the context of studying a concern. Frost (2002: 25) believes that action research relates to a process that involves ‘systematic ref lection, study and action carried out by individuals’. Carr and Kemmis (1986: 162) define it as ‘a form of self-ref lective study undertaken by participants in a social situation in order to improve


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the rationality and justice of their own practices, their understandings of these practices, and the situations in which these practices are’. Thus, for Mills (2000) and Carr and Kemmis (1986) it means that individually and collectively, members of a profession reserve the right to make autonomous and independent judgements, free from external non-professional controls and constraints, about the particular courses of action to be adopted in any particular situation. According to Elliott, a precondition for action research is ‘a felt need on the part of practitioners to initiate change, to innovate’ (1991: 53). He has argued that action research: Improves practice by developing the practitioner’s capacity for discrimination and judgement in particular, complex, human situations. It unifies inquiry, the improvement of performance and the development of persons in their professional role. (Elliott 1991: 52)

9 Data Collection Process Focus group discussions were held with educators during the course of each year of the study. Triangulation of data was achieved through semi-structured interviews with student-teachers and responses to a questionnaire that was completed by post-primary pupils at the end of each year. Year 2 led to further clarification of themes in Year 1 and took the form of a more focused and intensive study with a smaller group of student-teachers. In Year 2 data for educators was linked to each of the three student-teachers. In addition, in order to supplement and enrich the data for each studentteacher, the data for their particular pedagogical project and for their particular class group were linked. Sample pieces of evidence drawn from each pedagogical project were shown in the appendix of the study. The following themes relating to autonomous language teaching formed part of the study.

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1. Student-teachers’ understanding of autonomous language teaching and learning 2. Interaction/collaboration between educators and student teachers (Data not collected in Year 1 in context of mentors’ interaction with student-teachers) 3. Critical ref lective writing and growth in student-teachers’ metacognitive capacity (Data not collected in Year 1) 4. Student-teachers’ acceptance of responsibility for expressing their own understandings about teaching and for making use of target language in teaching 5. PGDE pedagogical project (Data not collected in Year 1 with mentors) 6. Challenges to autonomous teaching

10 Summary of Findings Year 1 Collaboration among educators supported educators in developing a more coherent educational approach. Educators found that by ref lecting on learning and teaching, pupils and student-teachers developed self-awareness and the capacity to make decisions about teaching/learning. The process of negotiating/interacting with students enhanced learners’ motivation and self-confidence. Ref lecting on teaching supported student-teachers in becoming more creative and critical. Project work supported autonomous language teaching and learning. Pressure to teach towards inappropriate, external assessment posed a particular challenge to autonomous teaching, e.g. there was sometimes an expectation from mentors and from pupils that student-teachers should teach within a narrow focus. The vast majority of pupils found that the Dossier of the


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ELP supported them in ‘keeping evidence’ of their learning. This suggests that the ‘I can’ check-lists of the Biography linked to demonstration of evidence of achievement supported learning. Year 2 Collaboration between educators and student-teachers supported each of the three student-teachers in developing their capacity to ref lect, self-direct and involve pupils in the learning process. A more collaborative relationship based on mutual respect between mentor-teachers and student-teachers led to learning by each of the student-teachers and in some instances, to professional learning on the part of mentors as well. The positive impact of collaboration between mentors and student-teachers, e.g. growth in student-teachers’ self-confidence, emerged more clearly in Year 2 than in Year 1. Ref lective writing and work in the context of the pedagogical project supported student-teachers in developing self-awareness and by implication, their capacity to self-direct. Ref lective writing supported student-teachers in planning and in clarifying for themselves particular issues in their teaching. The Dossier of ELP made learning more transparent to learners and supported them in being motivated and self-directed. The social dimension of learning supported learners’ motivation, e.g. one student-teacher found that learners in her class enjoyed showing evidence of their learning to one another and exchanging meanings in pair-work and in the context of a recorded dramatic production. Supervisors reported there was enhanced use of target language over the course of the year. However, educators in general believed there was need for further examination of the potential impact on learners’ language proficiency of ref lecting on learning through the medium of the target language. As in Year 1, inappropriate external State examinations were found to be a particular challenge to autonomous language teaching and learning and by implication, to use of the ELP.

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11 Challenges The particular model of ELP developed by the Centre for Language and Communication Studies, Trinity College Dublin, was found not to be user friendly. A more user friendly version needs to be created. Current forms of formal, external and terminal assessment methods posed a challenge to teachers in making use of more autonomous teaching and learning approaches. These methods need to be urgently reviewed. This is not to say of course that creative teaching and formative assessment do not take place in many schools. However, the dominance of current forms of summative assessment suggests that assessment for learning (AfL) is being put at risk. Clearly, it would be helpful for teachers in the context of continuous professional development if they were of fered support in making use of more autonomous teaching and learning approaches linked to formative assessment. In the context of pre-service teacher education a challenge is for us to develop ways that support student-teachers in engaging in autonomous teaching. A professional portfolio, acting as a process tool, supports them in this process and develops their capacity to engage pupils in autonomous learning.

12 Conclusion The current form of formal, external and summative assessment promotes a passive and acquiescent attitude towards learning by student-teachers and learners. Student-teachers need to be supported in developing their personal and social identity if they are to support learners in engaging in this process. More formative assessment processes would support studentteachers and other teachers in this process. We cannot expect studentteachers to develop as creative and innovative practitioners if the current forms of assessment that encourages an acquiescent attitude is allowed to continue. Student-teachers and learners deserve better. The teaching,


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learning and assessment processes need to be more coherently linked in order that student-teachers can develop their capacity to accept responsibility for their teaching linked to student-teachers engaging in dialogue with learners that is aimed at supporting learners in making use of the target language to express their own meaning. We need to move from largely outdated language teaching, learning, and assessment approaches to ones that are more geared towards supporting teachers and learners in developing their capacity to self-direct that implies being able to express their own meanings. This can be achieved by of fering student-teachers and learners opportunities to demonstrate sample pieces of evidence of cognitive and metacognitive capacity development, e.g. self-assessing, that are linked to an enhanced ability and self-confidence to make use of the target language to express their own meanings in the context of topics they have had a part in selecting, and opportunities for them to demonstrate sample pieces of evidence of engagement in oral-aural interaction in a variety of socio-cultural contexts, e.g. their experience of intercultural dialogue, and visits to the target community. A central premise of this study has been that autonomous learning depends on autonomous teaching. In order that student-teachers develop their autonomy more systematic on-going dialogue/collaboration between educators needs to be supported, e.g. through professional development courses. I believe that the scope of this study reaches beyond language learners. All learners need to develop their identity as persons who are knowledge creators and by implication, as persons who have the capacity to express their own meanings and to socially interact in meaningful ways.

References Allwright, D. (1990). ‘Autonomy in Language Pedagogy’, CRILE Working Paper 6. Centre for Research in Education, University of Lancaster: UK. Benson, P. and Voller, P. (eds) (1997). Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman.

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Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning. Harlow, Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited. Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research. London: Falmer Press. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DES (1995). Charting our Education Future. White Paper on Education. Government Publications, Dublin, Ireland. DES (2004). Inspection of Modern Languages: Observations and Issues. Government Publications, Dublin, Ireland. Elliott, J. (1991). Action Research for Educational Change. Buckingham: Open University Press. Farren, P. (2008). ‘The European Language Portfolio in Pre-service Language Teacher Education’, PhD thesis, Trinity College Dublin. Frost, P. (2001). ‘Principles of the Action Research Cycle’. In Ritchie, R., Pollard, A., Frost, P. and Eaude, T. (eds), Action Research: A Guide for Teachers: Burning Issues in Primary Education, (3) 24–32. Birmingham National Primary Trust. Kaikkonen, P. (2001). ‘Intercultural Learning through Foreign Language Education’. In Kohonen, V., Jaatinen, R., Kaikkonen, P. and Lehtovaara, J. Experiential Learning in Foreign Language Education, 61–105. London: Pearson Education. Kohonen, V. (ed.) (2000). Experiential Learning in Foreign Language Education. London: Longman. Kohonen, V. (2006). ‘On the Notions of the Language Learner, Student and Language User in F.L. Education; Building the Road as we Travel’. In Pietila, P., Lintunen, P. and Jarvinen, H. (eds), Kielenoppija tanaan – Language Learners of Today, 37–66. AfInLA Yearbook 2006, 64. Jyvaskyla: AFinLA. Little, D. (1990). ‘Autonomy in Language Learning’. In Gathercole, I. (ed.), Autonomy in Language Learning, 7–15. London: CILT. Little, D. (1991). Learner Autonomy 1: Definition, Issues and Problems. Dublin: Authentik. Little, D. (1995). ‘Learning as Dialogue: The Dependence of Learner Autonomy on Teacher Autonomy’, System, 23(2), 175. Little, D. (1996). Strategies in Language Learning and Use, 20. Council of Europe. Little, D. (1999). ‘Developing Learner Autonomy in the Foreign Language Classroom: A Social-interactive View of Learning and three Fundamental Pedagogical Principles’, Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 38, 77–88. Little, D. (2001). ‘We’re all in it together: Exploring the Interdependence of Learner and Teacher Autonomy’. CLCS Occasional Paper. Dublin: Trinity College, Centre for Language and Communication Studies.


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Little, D. (2002). ‘The ELP: Structure, Origins, Implementation and Challenges’, Language Teacher, 35, 182–9. Macaro, E. (1997). Target Language, Collaborative Learning and Autonomy. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Mills, G.E. (2000). Action Research: a Guide for the Teacher Researcher. New Jersey: Merill/Prentice Hall. Pollard, A. (2005). Ref lective Teaching: Evidence-Informed Professional Practice. New York; London: Continuum 2. Ridley, J. (1997). Learner Autonomy 6: Developing Learners’ Thinking Skills. Dublin: Authentik. Schärer, R. (2000). European Language Portfolio: Final Report on the Pilot Project. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Terwel, J. (1999). ‘Constructivism and its Implications for Curriculum Theory and Practice’, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(2), 195–9. Thomson, C.K. (1996). ‘Self-assessment in Self-directed Learning: Issues of Learner Diversity’. In Pemberton R. et al. (eds), Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning, 77–91. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

Belinda McHale

An Foghlaimeoir Machnamhach: Fís Mhíréadúil nó Féidearthacht Mhór?

1 Réamhrá agus Cúlra an Taighde I mí Mheán Fómhair 2007, cuireadh tús le cúrsa nua Dioplóma in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge, Ollscoil na hÉireann, Gaillimh, dioplóma a bhí bunaithe ar leibhéal A2 de Chomhchreat Tagartha na hEorpa do Theangacha. Bhí sé mar aidhm ag an gcúrsa seo foghlaimeoirí a chothú a mbeadh tuiscint bhunúsach acu ar an nGaeilge agus a bheadh in ann comhrá simplí a láimhseáil a bheadh bunaithe ar théamaí laethúla cosúil le cúlra oideachais, cúrsaí oibre, an teaghlach srl. Mar chuid de spriocanna an chúrsa seo, sonraíodh go mbeadh na mic léinn eolach ar an bpróiseas sealbhaithe teanga agus go gcuirfí ar a gcumas cur leis an bpróiseas foghlama go neamhspleách lasmuigh den seomra ranga. Mar chuid de thorthaí foghlama an chúrsa seo, soiléiríodh go mbeadh na mic léinn in ann spriocanna foghlama a leagan amach dóibh féin agus go mbeidís in ann a bheith criticiúil ar a ndul chun cinn féin sa phróiseas foghlama teanga. Sa pháipéar seo, scrúdófar rathúlacht choincheap an fhoghlaimeora mhachnamhaigh ina bhfreagrófar an dá cheist seo a leanas: Ar éirigh leis an Dioplóma A2 foghlaimeoirí neamhspleácha machnamhacha a chothú tar éis dhá bhliain? Má d’éirigh, cén chaoi agus murar éirigh, cén chúis a bhí leis sin?

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2 Modheolaíocht Sa pháipéar seo, déanfar tagairt do chás-staidéar a reáchtáladh mar bhunús an taighde seo, staidéar atá bunaithe ar rang Dioplóma A2 idir na blianta 2008–2010, rang a mhúin an taighdeoir í féin, ina raibh trí mhac léinn déag ann. Roghnaíodh an cás-staidéar mar straitéis taighde mar go bhfuil sé sonrach agus bunaithe ar shuíomh nádúrtha (Yin 1994: 52), is é sin le rá, an seomra ranga féin. Chomh maith leis sin, soiléiríonn an cás-staidéar próifíl an fhoghlaimeora teanga ag an leibhéal seo agus ní hamháin sin ach éascaíonn sé dianscagadh a dhéanamh ar uimhreacha beaga chomh maith (Denscombe 1998: 31). Chuathas i muinín na samplála cuspóiriúla mar gur thuig an taighdeoir go soláthródh an sampla áirithe seo an t-eolas ab fheiliúnaí agus ab fhiúntaí chun tacú leis an bplean taighde a bhí idir lámha aici. Mar mhodhanna taighde, dáileadh ceisteoirí ar na rannpháirtithe agus baineadh úsáid as cáipéisí oifigiúla an Dioplóma A2 freisin. Ar ndóigh, caitheadh dhá bhliain acadúla i mbun breathnadóireachta sa rang agus ag déanamh tascanna feasachta a bhí dírithe ar an bhfoghlaim mhachnamhach freisin.

3 Comhthéacs an Taighde I dtosach, áfach, tá tosca amháin ar cheart tagairt a dhéanamh dó le go bhfaighidh an léitheoir léargas cruinn ar chomhthéacs an taighde seo agus factóir atá éigeantach chun peirspictíocht níos soiléire a fháil ar an rang teanga A2 nach gcloíonn, aisteach go leor, leis an norm idéalach. Cuirfear imlíne ar fáil anseo ar na cineálacha éagsúla foghlaimeoirí a thug faoin gcúrsa seo agus tabharfar faoi deara go bhfuil an-difríocht idir an spriocghrúpa foghlaimeoirí a mbeifí ag súil leo agus an rang a ndearnadh iniúchadh air mar chuid den taighde seo.

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Toisc go bhfuil trí leibhéal de dhioplóma ar fáil do mhic léinn in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge, sé sin A2, B2 agus C1, tá sé ríthábhachtach an mac léinn a chur isteach sa leibhéal is fearr a fheileann dá chumas agus dá ábaltacht. Le bheith cinnte go bhfuil sé seo curtha i gcrích i gceart, déanann an mac léinn triail sochrúcháin teanga ar líne a nochtann an caighdeán Gaeilge atá aige cheana féin agus a chabhraíonn leis an lucht riaracháin é a chur isteach sa leibhéal ceart. Ar ndóigh, go teoiriciúil, tá an Dioplóma A2 in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge dírithe ar ghlantosaitheoirí nó daoine nach as Éirinn iad agus nach bhfuil oiread na fríde den sprioctheanga ar a dtoil acu. Ní mar seo a thit rudaí amach, áfach, toisc gur tharla sé go bhfuair an t-uafás Éireannach marc a léirigh go raibh siad feiliúnach do leibhéal A2 seachas na leibhéil eile. Chomh maith leis sin, bhí cuid mhaith Éireannach ag iarraidh tabhairt faoin leibhéal seo, go háirithe dóibh siúd a bhí meirgeach agus nach raibh tar éis an Ghaeilge a úsáid le fada an lá, dóibh siúd a cheap go dtabharfadh an cúrsa seo bunchloch struchtúrtha dóibh agus go bhfeidhmeodh sé, thar aon rud eile, mar chúrsa athnuachana. Anuas air sin, chláraigh go leor Éireannach leis an Dioplóma B2 ach tar éis cúpla seachtain den chúrsa a dhéanamh, d’airigh cuid acu go raibh an leibhéal sin ródheacair dóibh nó i gcásanna eile, mhol an teagascóir dóibh dul síos go dtí leibhéal A2 toisc go mbeadh sé ní b’fheiliúnaí dóibh. Tharla sé, mar sin, go raibh foghlaimeoirí Éireannacha sa rang seo mar aon le foghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha. Sholáthar sé seo an t-uafás deacrachtaí agus dúshlán don taighdeoir toisc, ní hamháin go raibh réimse leathan foghlaimeoirí os a comhair amach gach uile sheachtain ach go raibh cuid acu ag teacht isteach a raibh réamhthuairimí agus meon sách diúltach acu a d’eascair as an am a chaith siad i gcóras bunscolaíochta agus córas meánscolaíochta na hÉireann. Ar an láimh eile, bhí foghlaimeoirí ó thíortha eile sa rang a bhí go hiomlán neamhchlaonta toisc nach raibh an drochthaithí seo acu. Chomh maith leis sin, chruthaigh an meascán mearaí caighdeán a bhí sa rang dúshlán ollmhór mar go raibh sé an-soiléir go mbíodh na glantosaitheoirí ag éirí frustrach leis na foghlaimeoirí a chuaigh trí chóras scolaíochta na hÉireann agus a raibh comhréir bhunúsach na teanga ar a dtoil acu i gcomparáid leo féin agus iad beag beann ar struchtúr na Gaeilge. As an bhfrustrachas seo, d’eascair mothúcháin láidre neamhthábhachta agus ísleachta i measc na bhfoghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha, mothúcháin

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a chuir lagmhisneach orthu. Bhí sé seo an-soiléir don taighdeoir agus í i mbun teagaisc sa rang agus tháinig sé chun solais go foirmeálta freisin nuair a rinneadh seisiúin aiseolais leo ag deireadh na bliana acadúla. Caithfear an suíomh leochaileach foghlama seo a chur san áireamh agus torthaí an taighde seo á scagadh.

4 Iarrachtaí an Fhoghlaim Mhachnamhach a chur i gcrích sa Rang Teanga In agallamh a chuir an taighdeoir ar David Little i mí Lúnasa 2006, mhínigh sé cé chomh tábhachtach is atá straitéisí machnamhacha mar chuid lárnach den phróiseas teagaisc: These ref lective and record-keeping processes are not something that’s bolted onto the edge, they’re absolutely central to the process.

Is leis an tuairim seo mar shlat tomhais a tugadh aghaidh ar theagasc na bhfoghlaimeoirí sa Dioplóma A2. Mar chuid den chúrsa, bhí ar na mic léinn tabhairt faoi dhá rud i gcomhthéacs na foghlama machnamhaí, sé sin dialann foghlama a choinneáil cothrom chun dáta agus tascanna a bhí bunaithe ar an bhfeasacht teanga a dhéanamh go minic sa rang. Is éard a bhí i gceist leis an dialann foghlama ná cuntas a choinneáil ar na nithe seo a leanas: an dul chun cinn a bhí déanta ag an bhfoghlaimeoir, na focail nua a d’fhoghlaim sé, na straitéisí éisteachta a d’úsáid sé, na fadhbanna cumarsáide a bhí aige agus na seifteanna ar bhain sé úsáid astu chun dul i ngleic leis na fadhbanna seo. Iarradh ar na mic léinn a bheith ag scríobh sa dialann gach seachtain chun go bhfeicfidís a ndul chun cinn sa sprioctheanga. Maidir leis na tascanna feasachta teanga, bhain siad sin le hábhair dhifriúla, mar shampla, míreanna gramadaí a cheap na foghlaimeoirí a bhí casta, na deacrachtaí a bhí acu le tasc éisteachta nó le canúint faoi leith a thuiscint, cur síos a dhéanamh ar ócáid lasmuigh den seomra ranga nuair a d’úsáid siad an Ghaeilge agus an chaoi ar airigh siad ina dhiaidh srl. Pléadh na pointí seo uile sa rang.


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5 Torthaí an Taighde Soiléiríonn Huttunen (1996: 85) trí leibhéal machnaimh, leibhéil atá bunaithe ar theoiric Habermas, socheolaí agus fealsúnaí, agus fear a leag síos trí chatagóir do bhailiú agus d’eagrú eolais. Feidhmíonn na catagóirí seo mar uirlisí fiúntacha chun anailís a dhéanamh ar rathúlacht an fhoghlaimeora mar fhoghlaimeoir machnamhach agus is ar na trí chatagóir seo a dhíreofar anseo. Déanfar idirdhealú anseo idir na trí leibhéal machnaimh – leibhéal meicniúil, leibhéal praiticiúil agus leibhéal fuascailte (Huttunen 1996: 86). Bíonn na foghlaimeoirí a mbaineann úsáid as machnamh meicniúil an-tógtha le míreanna áirithe den teanga a fhoghlaim de ghlanmheabhair agus ní bhíonn siad sásta obair as a stuaim féin ná anailís a dhéanamh ar an rud atá foghlamtha acu. Bíonn easpa samhlaíochta i gceist ag an leibhéal seo machnaimh agus anuas air sin, bíonn nós ag na foghlaimeoirí brath go mór ar an rud a d’fhoghlaim siad focal ar fhocal ón leabhar agus gan aon spreagthacht acu úinéireacht a ghlacadh air agus a gcruth féin a chur air. Míníonn Huttunen í féin machnamh praiticiúil nuair a deir sí go mbaineann sé le ‘understanding a particular environment so that one is able to interact with it, to live as part of it, and to carry out a practical action within it. This is a here-and-now experience: there is no proper analysis and links are not made with wider contexts’ (2003: 125). Tugann sé seo le fios go mbíonn spriocanna an fhoghlaimeora teanga a fheidhmíonn ag an leibhéal seo machnaimh dírithe ar éilimh phraiticiúla an taisc a bhíonn idir lámha aige agus go mbíonn drogall air, nó b’fhéidir gurb é nach dtuigeann sé gur féidir leis, na straitéisí a bhí in úsáid aige sa rang a úsáid lasmuigh de shuíomh an tseomra ranga agus a úsáid i gcomhthéacs eile le cainteoirí eile Gaeilge nó ar ndóigh, le lucht labhartha teangacha eile. Arís, b’fhéidir go mbaineann an easpa feasachta seo le heaspa treorach an teagascóra ach tiocfar ar ais chuige seo arís. Is ag an leibhéal fuascailte a thuigeann an foghlaimeoir nádúr iomlánaíoch an phróisis foghlama i gceart (Huttunen 2003: 125), sé sin le rá go bhfeiceann sé go bhfuil próiseas, ní hamháin táirge i gceist le foghlaim teanga agus go mbíonn dúshláin i gcónaí roimh an bhfoghlaimeoir teanga

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ach go bhfuil bealaí éagsúla ann chun dul i ngleic leo seo. Tá sé in ann na straitéisí éagsúla foghlama a úsáideann sé a phlé agus tá sé ar a chumas tarraingt ar a chuid taithí féin chun iad seo a chur i gcomparáid le straitéisí eile a úsáideann sé, mar shampla, chun teanga eile a fhoghlaim. Thar aon rud eile, is ag an leibhéal seo a thuigeann an foghlaimeoir go bhfuil a leithéid de rud agus feasacht mheiteachognaíoch ann agus is ag an leibhéal seo a théann sé i muinín na feasachta seo mar mhodh foghlama. Mar sin, leis an idirdhealú seo mar chreatlach don taighde seo, scrúdófar anois na cineálacha éagsúla foghlaimeoirí a cothaíodh sa rang Dioplóma A2. I dtosach báire, is fiú a rá gur éirigh le gach uile dhuine as na trí dhuine dhéag a bhí sa rang cur síos de chineál éigin a dhéanamh ar an bpróiseas foghlama, ar na deacrachtaí a bhí acu agus ar na seifteanna a d’úsáid siad, cé go raibh feasacht foghlaimeoirí áirithe ní ba chuimsithí ná foghlaimeoirí eile. Is iad seo a leanas na téamaí is coitianta a tháinig chun cinn agus na mic léinn ag déanamh machnaimh orthu féin mar fhoghlaimeoirí Gaeilge: (1) an deacracht ba mhó a bhí acu le foghlaim na Gaeilge, (2) frustrachas agus easpa muiníne, (3) sraitéisí comhrá, sóisialta agus mothaitheacha, (4) an tábhacht a bhaineann le deiseanna éisteachta a chuardach lasmuigh den seomra ranga agus (5) an dúshlán a bhaineann le bheith ag machnamh as Gaeilge. Arís, laistigh de na téamaí seo, tiocfaidh leibhéil éagsúla na foghlama machnamhaí chun solais.

6 An Deacracht ba mhó a bhí acu le Foghlaim na Gaeilge Soiléiríodh dhá dheacracht faoi leith anseo, rud a mbeifí ag súil leis agus dhá ghrúpa faoi leith foghlaimeoirí sa rang agus dar ndóigh, riachtanais faoi leith ag an dá ghrúpa sin. Ba í an chloch ba mhó ar pháidrín na bhfoghlaimeoirí Éireannacha ná máistreacht a fháil ar chúrsaí gramadaí i gcomparáid leis na foghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha a bhí ag streachailt le foghraíocht na Gaeilge. Bhí bealaí éifeachtacha ag an dá ghrúpa seo chun dul i ngleic leis na fadhbanna seo, áfach. Bhí sé de nós ag na foghlaimeoirí


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Éireannacha cártaí sracfhéachana a úsáid, nó b’fhéidir an riail ghramadaí a scríobh amach agus neart samplaí ina dhiaidh sin, liostaí de na briathra sna haimsirí difriúla, mar shampla, nó liosta de na litreacha a thógann séimhiú agus díobh siúd a thógann urú srl. Luann foghlaimeoir amháin: I bought blank postcards and on each postcard have written down a certain rule. I then stuck them on the wall above where I do my homework so when I get stuck I don’t have to keep trailing back through the book.

Dúirt duine eile: If I realize that I don’t know something, I will examine why I don’t know how to say it and either learn it if simple and has been covered on some or other chapter in the past, or at least try and understand why I am not able to say something.

Bhí sé de nós ag na foghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha éisteacht leis na dlúthcheirníní a thagann mar chuid de phacáiste an chúrsa. Bhí rudaí mar seo le rá ag go leor acu: Listening to the tape and reading from the book helped me to relate the words on the page with their sound. I have burnt the cds onto my home computer and I try to spend a bit of time every day listening and repeating the words. I find this very helpful.

Cuireann foghlaimeoir amháin eile leis seo nuair a deir sí: I can replay them and don’t have to worry about the Irish speaker getting frustrated with me.

Pléifear an focal sin ‘frustrachas’ i gceann dhá mheandar. Cé nach bhfuil aon rud an-sonrach luaite ag na foghlaimeoirí anseo, is ardú meanman don taighdeoir é go bhfuil siad in ann a bheith criticiúil ar a gcuid foghlama féin agus tabhairt faoi na dúshláin a nochtann siad a sheasann eatarthu féin agus foghlaim na Gaeilge.

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Belinda McHale

7 Frustrachas agus Easpa Muiníne As rang de thrí dhuine dhéag, leag seachtar an-bhéim ar an gcaoi ar mhothaigh siad frustrach i leith labhairt na Gaeilge, mothúchán a bhí an-soiléir nuair a bhí siad ag iarraidh teacht ar fhoclóir chun abairtí a chumadh nó abairtí a aistriú. As an seachtar seo, bhí ceathrar foghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha agus triúr foghlaimeoirí Éireannacha i gceist. Nasc beirt fhoghlaimeoirí tábhacht an teagascóra le maolú an fhrustrachais seo mar aon len iad a spreagadh agus a gcuid muiníne a chothú. Ba chúis sásaimh í don taighdeoir gur luadh í mar fhoinse thábhachtach spreagtha, foinse a leagann Ushioda an-bhéim uirthi nuair a deir sí: ‘From the teacher’s perspective, motivation is a question not of finding strategies and incentives to get learners to do what she wants, but of providing the right kinds of interpersonal support and stimulation so that learners will discover things they want to do for themselves’ (2003: 96). Rinneadh iarracht an méid freagrachta agus ab fhéidir a leagan ar na foghlaimeoirí sa chaoi is go n-aithneoidís féin go raibh siad i gceannas ar a gcuid foghlama agus moladh iad as an dul chun cinn a rinne siad, ba chuma cé chomh beag is a bhí se in amanna. Léirigh foghlaimeoir eile a chuid frustrachais agus é ag tagairt do na hiarrachtaí a bhí déanta aige cainteoir líofa a aimsiú a bheadh in ann cabhrú leis ach a bheadh foighdeach freisin, duine a thuigfeadh nach mbíonn na fadhbanna céanna ag foghlaimeoir eachtrannach is a bhíonn ag foghlaimeoir Éireannach i gcónaí. Bhí samplaí éagsúla ag na foghlaimeoirí agus iad ag léiriú an easpa muiníne a bhí acu agus iad i mbun fhoghlaim na Gaeilge. D’airigh foghlaimeoir amháin go mór faoi bhrú agus í ag labhairt le cainteoirí eile a raibh caighdeán ní b’fhearr Gaeilge acu ná mar a bhí aici féin. Mhothaigh sí mar seo toisc go raibh sí chomh haireach agus chomh feasach sin faoi cé chomh stadach is a bhí sí féin is gur cheap sí go dtosódh an cainteoir eile ag éirí frustrach léi: ‘If I could just get past the fear factor of speaking it and not worry about being wrong or making a fool of myself, I am sure I would start to have fun speaking it’. Mhínigh duine eile straitéis phearsanta a d’fhorbair sí féin chun dul i ngleic leis an bhfíorfheasacht seo nuair a dúirt sí gur labhair sí le daoine a raibh aithne an-mhaith aici orthu.


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Dar léi féin, toisc go raibh sí ar a compord i gcomhluadar na gcainteoirí seo, níor airigh sí an méid céanna brú ná frustrachais is a bheadh i gceist le stráinséirí: ‘When it comes to me speaking Irish, I would have to know someone well before I would keep speaking it to them’. Bhí foghlaimeoir eile a bhí sa bhád céanna léi seo a dúirt nach raibh muinín ar bith aici labhairt le daoine nach raibh sa rang Gaeilge. Eascraíonn pointe thar a bheith spéisiúil as na tuairimí seo, coincheap a dtugann Douglas Brown an language ego air: ‘As human beings learn to use a second language, they develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting – a second identity. The new ‘language ego’, intertwined with the second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions’ (2002: 12). Tá sé soileir don taighdeoir go bhfuil an seachtar seo ag streachailt go mór leis an ego nua seo a shealbhaigh siad i rith an dá bhliain den chúrsa. Tá beirt, áfach, as an seachtar seo a thriail an leochaileacht agus an chosantacht a tháinig chun cinn iontu nuair a bhí siad i suíomh na Gaeilge a mhíniú. Dúirt duine amháin acu: I struggle with pronunciation (perhaps an Irish accent helps?!) and so I hesitate to try to speak as often as I should. I know that in time and with more practice, the letter combinations will become easier to pronounce. I suppose when you try anything new as an adult, you are apt to be more self-conscious about making mistakes.

Tá an féin-chomhfhios seo le sonrú i ndearcadh foghlaimeoir eile freisin: Initially, the biggest problem was hearing myself speak a dif ferent language and being very aware that someone might hear me. This forced me to work on my blas which I think now, held me back a little…but with hindsight, I should have just spoken and tried not to be too worried.

Is rud dearfach é go n-aithníonn na foghlaimeoirí go bhfuil straitéisí ann chun an easpa muiníne agus na mothúcháin ísleachta a mhaolú, go dteastaíonn cleachtadh os ard le cainteoirí eile sa sprioctheanga agus go bhfuil ról an-tábhachtach ag an teagascóir féin sa phróiseas seo chun go dtarlóidh cumasc idir féiniúlacht an fhoghlaimeora agus an ego nua agus

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Belinda McHale

nach mbeidh an bhearna chomh feiceálach sin eatarthu. Is fiú a lua ag an staid seo freisin go ndearna an taighdeoir cinneadh comhfhiosach go mbeadh sé mar fhreagracht aici féinriar a mhealladh i measc na bhfoghlaimeoirí, béim a leagan ar a gcuid spriocanna foghlama, agus an rang a mholadh chomh minic agus is féidir as an dul chun cinn ar éirigh leo a dhéanamh agus na spriocanna sin á mbaint amach acu. Chuathas i muinín Dam (2003: 136) agus an bhéim a leagann sí ar thábhacht an teagascóra nuair a deir sí gur aoin teagascóir féin atá sé a bheith feasach ar an ról riachtanach atá aige i bpróiseas na foghlama.

8 Sraitéisí Comhrá, Sóisialta agus Mothaitheacha Bhí seisear foghlaimeoirí sa rang, cúigear foghlaimeoirí Éireannacha agus foghlaimeoir eachtrannach amháin, a d’aithin go raibh nasc láidir idir foghlaim na Gaeilge sa rang agus úsáid na teanga i gcomhthéacsanna éagsúla nádúrtha agus réadúla lasmuigh den seomra ranga. Shoiléirigh siad gur chabhraigh deiseanna nádúrtha cainte i suíomhanna neamhfhoirmeálta leo. Ba iad an dá shampla ba mhó a tháinig chun cinn anseo ná an bhialann in Áras na Gaeilge, in Ollscoil na hÉireann, Gaillimh a chothaíonn timpeallacht Ghaelach ina bhfuil an Ghaeilge mar theanga oibre inti agus tréimhse a chaitheamh i nGaeltacht Chonamara mar chuid de dheireadh seachtaine tumoideachais. Bhí an méid seo le rá ag na foghlaimeoirí: ‘I found Áras na Gaeilge a great resource. I came with my co-workers to the cof fee shop a couple of times a week to speak Irish’. Dúirt duine eile: ‘I meet a group of other learners who are in the same boat as myself for caife as Gaeilge once or twice a week in Áras na Gaeilge and I really enjoy this informal setting. Sometimes I find it hard to motivate myself to actually sit down and study, but it’s a lot easier to motivate yourself to drink cof fee and chat about what you plan to do at the weekend or how your kids are’. Bhí tuairim eile ag foghlaimeoir eile: ‘I found the weekend in Carraroe very useful, it was really good for me to hear Irish being spoken outside of the classroom and to


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try and tune my ear into the accent’. Tá sé an-soiléir anseo gur thosaigh na foghlaimeoirí ag úsáid straitéisí sóisialta, is é sin le rá gur chuardaigh siad deiseanna nádúrtha cainte chun an sprioctheanga a chleachtadh i suíomh neamhfhoirmeálta. Mhol foghlaimeoir eile an bhean tí a d’úsáid Gaeilge laethúil shimplí, rud a spreag go mór í agus an bheirt acu ag comhrá lena chéile agus iad ag ní na soithí deireanach san oíche. Is sampla an-mhaith de straitéis mhothaitheach í seo agus maíonn Dansereau go dtagann na straitéisí seo chun cinn i bhfoghlaimeoir machnamhach: ‘A number of the best learners use af fective and social strategies to control their emotions, stay motivated, to co-operate and to get help’ (1985: 219). Baineann straitéisí mothaitheacha leis an nasc a dhéanann an foghlaimeoir idir an teanga agus lucht labhartha na teanga nó rud éigin dearfach (Hismanoglu 2000: 3). Léirítear samplaí maithe de na straitéisí mothaitheacha seo i gcomhthéacs an taighde seo: atmaisféar neamhfhoirmeálta, réchúiseach Áras na Gaeilge a spreag na foghlaimeoirí chun dul i mbun cainte nó an bhean tí a labhair leis an bhfoghlaimeoir a luadh thuas.

9 An Tábhacht a Bhaineann le Deiseanna Éisteachta a Chuardach Lasmuigh den Seomra Ranga Rinne triúr foghlaimeoirí tagairt do cé chomh tábhachtach is a bhí sé a bheith ag éisteacht leis an nGaeilge lasmuigh de na ranganna foirmeálta agus iad ag déanamh machnaimh ar na straitéisí éisteachta a bhí acu. Dúirt duine amháin acu: I find that listening to the radio in the evenings helps me with my Irish. On one station at 7 o’clock each evening, there is the chart count down. The DJ speaks Irish but repeats what she says in English. Even though I can understand what she is saying, it’s nice to have the mixture of both languages. Other ways in which I practise Irish is by speaking to my children’s teachers in Irish as they are in an all-Irish school. This also helps me to train my ear a little better.

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Belinda McHale

Luaigh an bheirt eile TG4 agus Raidió na Gaeltachta mar áiseanna fiúntacha éisteachta sa phróiseas foghlama toisc gur thug siad deis dóibh na trí chanúint a chloisteáil. Is ag comhlíonadh theoiric Brown atá an triúr seo nuair a deir sé go sroichfidh an foghlaimeoir pointe sa phróiseas foghlama nuair a bheidh gá an t-eolas a d’fhoghlaim sé sa rang teanga a chur in oiriúint d’éilimh an phobail teanga: ‘Students will have an eventual need to apply classroom learning to heretofore unrehearsed contexts in the real world’ (2002: 12/13). Mhínigh duine de na foghlaimeoirí an pointe seo ina chuid focal féin agus é ag tagairt don tábhacht a bhaineann lena chuid scileanna éisteachta a fheabhsú: ‘For me, it’s about developing a sense of initiative rather than expecting the teacher to hold my hand through the learning experience. I have to be aware of my own limitations in order to overcome them. Armed with this knowledge, I can go of f and do my obair bhreise, focusing on the areas I know need work, listening for example’. Bhí duine amháin as an triúr a luadh thuas a mhol an uirlis foghlama Blackboard go hard na spéire mar áis éisteachta. Is éard atá i gceist le Blackboard ná timpeallacht fhíorúil foghlama agus caithfear a rá gur úsáideadh go minic é sa dara bliain den chúrsa A2 mar stór ceachtanna seachas mar bhlag ná mar fhóram plé. Aon uair a bhí fadhb ag na mic léinn le mír áirithe a bhí ar bun sa rang, cuireadh ceachtanna breise suas ar Blackboard chun go mbeidís in ann dul siar ar an mír sin agus é a bhuanú. Chomh maith leis sin, uaslódáladh comhaid fuaime chun go mbeidís in ann a gcuid scileanna éisteachta a chleachtadh, rud a d’ullmhódh iad do na measúnuithe cluastuisceana a bhí mar chuid den chúrsa.

10 An Dúshlán a Bhaineann le Machnamh a Dhéanamh sa Sprioctheanga Leag triúr rannpháirtithe de chuid an taighde seo an-bhéim ar a bheith in ann machnamh a dhéanamh sa sprioctheanga agus dar leis an triúr seo, d’éirigh leo é seo a chur i gcrích. Mhínigh foghlaimeoir amháin i dtéarmaí simplí é: ‘There definitely was a need to think in Irish rather than in English.


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Since I have overcome this, it has enabled me to “attack” the language with a bit more confidence’. Dúirt duine eile gur airigh sí go raibh sé seo thar a bheith dúshlánach: ‘to develop my passive knowledge into an active skill was my greatest challenge’ ach tar éis an deireadh seachtaine a chaitheamh ar an gCeathrú Rua, thosaigh sí ag machnamh ní ba mhinice as Gaeilge. Thug an tríú foghlaimeoir tuilleadh samplaí sa chomhthéacs seo: ‘I find myself thinking in Irish occasionally now. For instance, thinking of my husband as m’fhear céile and water as uisce, or wanting to say le do thoil and go raibh maith agat in place of the English versions when doing my shopping or in line at the bank’.

11 Conclúid Tar éis scagadh a dhéanamh ar na téamaí seo agus ar an méid a bhí le rá ag na foghlaimeoirí fúthu, tá sé soiléir gur thuig na trí dhuine dhéag acu go raibh próiseas de chineál éigin i gceist le foghlaim na Gaeilge. Tá an tuiscint seo níos soiléire, áfach, i bhfoghlaimeoirí áirithe agus léiríonn an fhianaise atá curtha i dtoll a chéile ag an taighdeoir seo gur sháraigh seisear foghlaimeoirí ón rang A2 (nó 46 faoin gcéad den rang) an leibhéal praiticiúil machnaimh toisc gur éirigh leo na straitéisí a bhí in úsáid acu sa rang a úsáid lasmuigh den seomra ranga. Bhí sé seo le sonrú i measc an tseisir foghlaimeoirí sin a thuig an tábhacht a bhaineann le deiseanna nádúrtha cainte a aimsiú i bpobal na Gaeilge, agus mar sin, a d’úsáid straitéisí comhrá, sóisialta agus mothaitheacha chun an sprioctheanga a thabhairt leo. As an seisear sin, bhí triúr a sháraigh an easpa muiníne agus an frustrachas a ghoill go mór orthu agus iad ag tosú amach ag foghlaim na Gaeilge, gníomh a léiríonn gur chabhraigh an teagmháil dhíreach leis an sprioctheanga go mór leo agus an nasc a rinne siad idir an teanga agus rud dearfach nó duine spreagúil. As an seisear foghlaimeoirí seo freisin, bhí triúr a chuardaigh deiseanna éisteachta lasmuigh de shuíomh foirmeálta an tseomra ranga mar gur thuig siad go gcuirfidís feabhas ar a gcuid foghraíochta agus go gcabhróidís lena gcuid tuisceana freisin. As an triúr sin, bhí duine amháin a mheas gur éirigh

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Belinda McHale

léi machnamh a dhéanamh sa sprioctheanga ar chríochnú an chúrsa di. Dé réir teoiricí Huttunen, is iad na foghlaimeoirí seo a shroich an leibhéal ab airde den fhoghlaim mhachnamhach, an leibhéal fuascailte, os rud é gur thuig siad nach ‘here-and-now experience’ a bhí ann agus toisc gur cheangail siad an próiseas foghlama le comhthéacsanna eile lasmuigh den teagasc foirmeálta (1996: 85). D’úsáid siad straitéisí chun dul i ngleic leis na dúshláin foghlama a bhí rompu agus léirigh siad feasacht mheiteachognaíoch i rith an phróisis foghlama sa mhéid is gur éirigh leo a ndul chun cinn a chur in iúl i rith an chúrsa agus na hiaróga éagsúla a spreag iad a phlé. Tá sé spéisiúil gur foghlaimeoirí Éireannacha ar fad a bhí sa seisear seo seachas duine amháin, rud a chuir iontas ar an taighdeoir mar gur cheap sí go mbeadh na foghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha ní ba dhírithe ar an gcineál seo machnaimh ach léiríonn sé seo freisin go raibh i bhfad ní ba mhó deacrachtaí acu sin dul i ngleic leis an language ego agus an easpa muiníne. Céard a tharla don seachtar eile a bhí sa rang? Cinnte, léirigh siad tuiscint agus feasacht áirithe ar an bpróiseas foghlama agus mar a dúradh ní ba luaithe, bhí siad in ann labhairt faoi na deacrachtaí a bhí acu agus iad i mbun foghlama mar aon leis na straitéisí a d’úsáid siad chun dul i ngleic leo seo. Níl dabht ar bith mar sin ach gur sháraigh siad leibhéal meicniúil na foghlama machnamhaí ach go raibh siad sáinnithe ag an leibhéal praiticiúil toisc nach raibh siad in ann na straitéisí a shealbhaigh siad sa seomra ranga a úsáid go feidhmiúil agus go praiticiúil i bpobal na Gaeilge. Dhírigh na foghlaimeoirí seo ar éilimh phraiticiúla an taisc a bhí ar bun acu, bíodh sé sa rang nó ar an áis foghlama Blackboard ach bhí bac orthu dul céim sa bhreis agus an léim sin a dhéanamh idir leibhéal praiticiúil agus leibhéal fuascailte na foghlama machnamhaí. Tá an taighdeoir lánchinnte, áfach, go dtuigeann an seachtar foghlaimeoirí seo go bhfuil an leibhéal is airde sin ann agus go bhfuil féidearthachtaí ollmhóra ag baint leis, rud a bhí le feiceáil sa seomra ranga nuair a chonaic siad na foghlaimeoirí eile a bhí tar éis freastal ar chúrsa tumoideachais sa Ghaeltacht agus iad chomh díograiseach, spreagtha agus dearfach sin ina dhiaidh. Má chuirtear an seachtar seo i gcomparáid le múnla an fhoghlaimeora mhachnamhaigh a d’fhorbair Whitaker, d’fhéadfaí ‘foghlaimeoirí comhtháite’ nó integrated learners a thabhairt orthu (1995: 13). Is í an cheist a chuireann an cineál seo foghlaimeora teanga air féin ná ‘How do I move from the potential act to the act itself ?’ (1995: 13), is é sin le rá, cén chaoi ar féidir leo an bhearna sin idir an machnamh praiticiúil agus an


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machnamh fuascailte a laghdú. Tuigeann siad go bhfuil leibhéal eile ann ach níl siad chomh gníomhach sin sa phróiseas, bíonn deacrachtaí acu bogadh ar aghaidh chuig céim dheireanach na foghlama machnamhaí. Soláthraíonn Ridley teoiric eile maidir leis an mbac a bhíonn ar fhoghlaimeoirí teanga bogadh idir na leibhéil eágsúla machnaimh. Deir sí agus bheifí ag súil leis seo ar aon nós, go dtógann sé am foghlaimeoirí machnamhacha a chothú, go háirithe nuair nach bhfuil an cineál seo taithí sealbhaithe acu cheana féin. Tuigeann siad an coincheap, tá siad ar an eolas faoin bpróiseas foghlama agus na straitéisí ar féidir leo a úsáid chun é a éascú ach bíonn moill orthu dul i muinín na straitéisí seo. D’fhéadfaí a rá go mbaineann an mhoill seo leis an language ego nó an frustrachas a luaigh na foghlaimeoirí áirithe seo. Ar an láimh eile, b’fhéidir nach bhfuil sé réadúil a bheith ag súil le leibhéal fuascailte machnaimh ó fhoghlaimeoirí teanga laistigh de thréimhse ama dhá bhliain. Soiléiríonn Ridley é seo nuair a deir sí: ‘There can be a time lag before learners act on what they know to be ef fective learning behaviour’ (2003: 84). Caithfear teoiricí Whitaker (1995) agus Ridley (2003) a chur san áireamh anseo agus anailís á déanamh ar rathúlacht an Dioplóma A2 foghlaimeoirí machnamhacha a chothú ach mar theagascóir a chaith dhá bhliain leis an rang seo, caithfidh an taighdeoir seo a bheith macánta agus féidearthachtaí eile a lua anseo freisin. Deir Little and Perclová: ‘In every class they [the teachers] remind their learners of the agreed learning targets, and they never miss an opportunity to encourage them to ref lect on their learning’ (2001: 27). Ba í seo an áit a raibh an deacracht ba mhó ag an taighdeoir. Cé go raibh tábhacht na foghlama machnamhaí de shíor ina hintinn aici, d’airigh sí faoi bhrú ag iarraidh míreanna éigeantacha an tsiollabais a chlúdach agus mar sin, bhí amanna ann nuair nach raibh an t-am aici díriú ar na tascanna a bhí bunaithe ar an bhfeasacht teanga ná ar an bhfoghlaim mhachnamhach sa rang. Ní hé nár thuig an taighdeoir a ról tábhachtach féin sa phróiseas foghlama, bhí comhairle Dam mar mhana aici i gcónaí: ‘Teachers who aim to promote a learner-directed learning environment encourage learners to ref lect on their learning, understand the process of learning and the function of language, and adopt patterns of learning in which they themselves take initiatives and feel in control of their progress’ (2003: 135). Bhí an fhadhb chéanna ag múinteoirí eile a bhí ag streachailt leis an dá thrá sin a fhreastal freisin agus ba mhinic a tharla sé go

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bhfuair míreanna an tsiollabais an lámh in uachtar ar an bhfeasacht teanga sa rang, rud a d’fhág go raibh feasacht an-mhaith mheititheangeolaíoch ag na foghlaimeoirí ar fad ach go raibh bac ar an seachtar sin dul i ngleic go héifeachtach leis an bhfeasacht mheiteachognaíoch (Ridley 2003: 78). Maidir leis an dá chineál foghlaimeora teanga a bhí sa rang áirithe seo, is léir gur chuir réamhthaithí na bhfoghlaimeoirí Éireannacha go mór le mothúcháin ísleachta agus leochaileachta na bhfoghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha, rud, aisteach go leor nár chuir isteach ar dhinimic an ranga, ach cinnte, a mhéadaigh language ego na bhfíorfhoghlaimeoirí agus tá an seans ann gur eascair an drogall dul sa tóir ar na deiseanna nádúrtha cainte as seo. Tá réiteach thar a bheith simplí ar an bhfadhb seo, áfach, agus is é sin, cúrsa Dioplóma A1 a réiteach do na foghlaimeoirí eachtrannacha. Le clabhsúr a chur leis an bpáipéar seo, mar sin, bhí ráta rathúlachta 46 faoin gcéad ag an Dioplóma A2 foghlaimeoirí machnamhacha a chothú ag an leibhéal is airde machnaimh ach is é seo an leibhéal a bhfuiltear ag súil leis má táthar ag iarraidh cainteoirí muiníneacha feasacha a chothú a thuigeann na dúshláin a bhíonn rompu agus na seifteanna ar féidir a úsáid chun dul i ngleic leo seo. Bhí ráta rathúlachta 100 faoin gcéad ag an gcúrsa foghlaimeoirí ag an meánleibhéal machnaimh a chothú – is é sin foghlaimeoirí ag an leibhéal praiticiúil. Is cúis áthais don taighdeoir seo gur sháraigh an trí dhuine dhéag ar fad a bhí sa rang an leibhéal is bunúsaí d’fhoghlaim mhachnamhach – an leibhéal meicniúil. Léiríonn an páipéar seo, mar sin, gur féidearthacht mhór í an foghlaimeoir machnamhach a chothú i rang teanga, gur fiú go mbeadh sé mar sprioc ag teagascóir teanga agus nach fís mhíréadúil amach is amach í.

Tagairtí Brown, D. (2002). ‘English Language Teaching in the “Post-Method” Era: Toward Better Diagnosis, Treatment, and Assessment’. I Richards, J.C. & Renandya, W.A. (eag.), Methodology in Language Teaching, An Anthology of Current Practice 9–23. An Bhreatain: Cambridge University Press.


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Dam, L. (2003). ‘Developing Learner Autonomy: the Teacher’s Responsibility’. I Little, D., Ridley, J. & Ushioda, E. (eag.), Learner Autonomy in the Foreign Language Classroom, 135–46. Baile Átha Cliath: Authentik. Dansereau, D. (1985). ‘Learning Strategy Research’. I Segal, J.W., Chipman, S.F. and Glaser, R.C. (eag.), Thinking and Learning Skills: Relating Learning to Basic Research, 209–40. New Jersey: Erlbaum. Denscombe, M. (1998). The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Research Projects. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Hismanoglu, M. (2000). ‘Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching’, The Internet TESL Journal léite 12 Samhain 2010. Huttunen, I. (1996). ‘Metacognition in the Process of Development of Learner Autonomy’. I Tornberg U. (eag.), Focus on the Language Learner, 77–97. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet Centrum for Didaktik. Little, D. and Perclová, R. (2001). European Language Portfolio: Guide for Teachers and Teacher Trainers. Strasbourg: Comhairle na hEorpa. Murphy, M. and Fleming, T. (2010). Habermas, Critical Theory and Education. NuaEabhrac: Routledge. Ridley, J. (2003). ‘Learners’ Ability to Ref lect on Language and on their Learning’. I Little, D., Ridley, J. & Ushioda, E. (eag.), Learner Autonomy in the Foreign Language Classroom, 78–89. Baile Átha Cliath: Authentik. Ushioda, E. (2003). ‘Motivation as a Socially Mediated Process’. I Little, D., Ridley, J. & Ushioda, E. (eag.), Learner Autonomy in the Foreign Language Classroom, 90–102. Baile Átha Cliath: Authentik. Whitaker, P. (1995). Managing to Learn: Aspects of Ref lective and Experiential Learning in Schools. Londain: Cassell. Yin, R.K. (2004). The Case Study Anthology. California: Sage Publications.

Agallamh David Little, Agallamh, 2 Lúnasa 2006.

Part Six

Language Teaching

Linda Butler


As a pedagogical model, the communicative approach (CA) advocates for creative language learning spaces that are first and foremost, ‘present, existential and concrete’ (Freire 1993: 76) to the learner. Numerous theoretical positions have informed language educators on language acquisition. The CA is one that asserts that language is essentially concerned with communication. The principles of CA are based on experiential educational principles put forward by educators such as Paulo Freire, Augusto Boal, Dorothy Heathcote and John Dewey (1916, 1968). Dewey validated the prior knowledge of learners asserting that, like children, they ‘come to school with all the experience got outside the school’ (2003: 50). Dewey calls for learner autonomy as an ‘outward action’ on the basis that ‘all human experience is ultimately social: it requires contact and communication’ (1938: 38). A central aspect of my teaching praxis is based on this premise; that learners define reality and develop learning that is rooted in their life experiences. As an experiential approach, CA through a drama lens can of fer learners the opportunity to articulate the view that reality in actuality, ‘is made, not found’ (Goodman 1978: front cover). That is to say, as an interventionist practice, drama pedagogies can help learners create a ‘reality’ of language learning as an enjoyable experience that is fundamentally realistic in response to targets they can aim for. Most importantly, in contextualizing drama to everyday life situations, drama can ef fectively ‘slow down’ real experience in order to investigate it critically in the target language. As a type of learning, drama used in this way espouses the communicative approach. A synergy of using creative frames of inquiry in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) essentially works to identify and address language learner needs in a ‘naming’ process motivated by a desire to know:

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Linda Butler What happens in the world of the learners with whom we work…to know the universe of their dreams, the language with which they skilfully defend themselves from the aggressiveness of their world, what they know independently of the school, and how they know it. (Bruner 1997: 21)

This action-based model of inquiry positions learners’ subjective experiences as central to producing authentic classroom activities where communication involves the integration of dif ferent language skills. Such learner-centred collaborations are consistent with the etymological meaning of the Greek word ‘drama’ δρᾶμα, meaning ‘action’, that which is focused on a process of constructing new meanings involving language awareness and trial and error as essential. To date, Process Drama has been at the forefront of aligning with communicative links (Kao, O’Neill 1998). Brief ly summarized, Process Drama proceeds without a script; its outcomes are unpredictable, it lacks a separate audience, and the experience is impossible to replicate exactly (O’Neill 1995). When used as an interventionist practice rooted in everyday situations, drama promotes problem-solving as the focal point in preparing learners to use the target language as coping strategies in dealing with ‘real life’ situations. In this f lexible and focused way, learners are encouraged to apply in practice their language learning as ‘outward action’ in their daily lives, that which Dewey calls for. All theories inform each other and can be used according to diverse learner styles, motivation and individual experiences that colour perceptions towards the art form, drama. These factors need to be considered when using it within CLT. As an approach and/or methodology, CLT is distinct from other linguistic theoretical positions. Earlier language learning models champion for example, behavioural/structural paradigms that perceive learning as a sequence of habit formation. This is acquired by positive and negative reinforcements through accurate language patterns and mistakes accordingly. Here, the learner is positioned as a scientific tablula rasa, one who essentially learns through imitation. Mistakes are observed as unwelcome interferences from such reinforcements, assimilated within the learner’s first language and regarded as ‘illegitimate, mentalistic, unempirical domains of inquiry and therefore irrelevant as unempirical


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and therefore, irrelevant’ (Woozley 1979: 3).1 A welcome yet limited shift towards prioritizing oral and aural communication competence underpinned the Audiolingual Method during World War II. Outlined by Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979: 3), this learning strategy is characterized by a dependency on mimicry; memorization of set phrases and overlearning. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills despite the introduction of new material presented in dialogue form. Grammar is taught by inductive analogies rather than deductive explanations (ibid). According to this ‘army method’, great importance is attached to pronunciation. Vocabulary is strictly limited in spite of using tapes and language laboratories as teaching aids for the first time. Suf fice to say, there exists a great ef fort to motivate students to produce error-free utterances and a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content (ibid). Cognitive practices followed, put forward by Noam Chomsky (1959) as a rational approach to language learning. Chomsky believed that children develop knowledge not merely through habit formation but by a set of underlying language rules as internal processes underpinned by innate creativity (Woozley 1979: 4). According to this theoretical framework, errors replace ‘mistakes’ in a process of trial and error informed by existing knowledge of the target language and supported by the ways in which languages work in general. The cognitive strategy involves common types of errors that include: ‘overgeneralization’ (incorrect predictions about the target language); ‘transfer’ (knowledge of the native language used to make predictions about the target language) and ‘omission/redundancy reduction’, wherein the learner omits certain parts of speech, which are not necessary to the overall goal of communication (ibid). As a response to such models, the communicative approach works to develop learner ef ficacy as a holistic view of the learning process by applying in practice, the view that ‘the way we see things is af fected by what we know or what we believe’ (Berger 1972: 7–8).

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accessed 10 November 2010.

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The CA classroom sees the learner as a diverse partner in a learning process that promotes qualities of self and peer learning; group interactions and peer teaching. The approach accentuates the importance that the learner conveys the message rather than fixates on linguistic forms. The communicative approach moves focus from grammar to lexis (words and collocations) to lexico-grammar contexts. This is not to say, however, that grammatical and lexical aspects are neglected. Rather, the emphasis of CA is f luency over accuracy in ways that locate the use of language for communication of meaning rather than learning in isolation, language structures, forms and vocabulary. To apply this approach in practice requires clear language objectives. Morrow (1981) emphasizes purposeful learningfocused frameworks central to the CA learning experience, where both learner and lecturer are certain in what they are doing. Morrow exemplifies this need for transparency when he refers to teaching listening exercises, whereby he often states that learners are asked to listen to a particular recording without a well-defined reason or specific selective task for doing so (Morrow 1979: 145). The excitement of learning and teaching is lost in such situations that perpetuate an ambiguous emphasis on cognition, or as Rogers more finely put it, an over-dependency on ‘education from the neck and above’ (Rodgers 1975: 40–1). In this didactic form, the role for educator is one Schön calls the ‘technical expert’ that operates in sites of instruction wherein teacher talk (TT) makes up around 70 per cent of classroom language (Cook 2000; Chaudron 1988). CA language classes negate one-way instruction-based methodologies that position drama as an appendage to enliven what is otherwise didactic or perceive the art form as divorced from any relevant learning as some ‘abnormal thing by all the fussy leotards, hairdos and stagecraft’ (Heathcote 1991: 119). Nor at the other extreme, is there an expectation for CLT teachers to feel they need to ‘perform’ to a group of language learners. In contrast, critical drama pedagogies described here are driven and determined by issues a community of learners present, which transfers the responsibility on them to negotiate individually and collectively. In this process, the role of educator is not an easy one. It demands non-directive intervention yet diligence in observing from the peripheral; recording learning and errors in the moment as well as facilitating other sites for inquiry as they arise,


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however subtle they may be. In this way, learners hear more types of language from dif ferent sources, interact with more people, use language in context, hear it repeated, rephrased and clarified, ask and answer questions and overall, build learner confidence. It is clear that any form of learning is inf luenced by multifaceted and complex interactions that vary according to theoretical perspectives, context and learner characteristics that include age, gender, motivation, personality, learning style, ‘intelligence’ and language aptitude (Ellis 1997; Gagné 1965; Larsen-Freeman, 1991; Gardner 2004) not to mention practical logistics the teachers face in any classroom. It is important to note that dif ferent linguistic approaches apply to learner needs as they arise. Drama is no dif ferent here as it explicitly demands engagement – not only for the lesson, but for the class as a community of learners. The extent to which it is ef fective depends on the ways in which educators broaden their approach to it in the classroom and lesson planning. Drama can potentially enrich a CLT classroom when the relationship between teacher and students is based on mutual trust, established as a gradual process that is supported by a safe and protective environment. There is a strong tendency for learners, however, to engage with interactive, realistic and authentic materials that they design, drive and evaluate as their own form of corpus analysis. Developing drama-based corpora of fers a real opportunity for in-moment learning. Stephen Walsh (2006) makes the point that in the classroom, so many things are happening at once, fine judgements can be dif ficult to make and deciding to intervene or withdraw in the momentby-moment construction of classroom interaction requires great sensitivity and awareness on the part of the teacher. A drama-based language corpus of fers an exhaustive basis for authentic transcripts, recordings and contextbound learning, out of which learners can be motivated to reconstruct missing words or structures and fill the pauses with the additional benefit of revisiting their work through media recordings in ways that acknowledge and respond to Walsh’s concern. As a corpus may be made up of whole texts, fragments or text samples, drama can be fully used in positioning the learner as central in corpus-building. Based on the Cambridge and Nottingham Spoken Business English Corpus (CANBEC), McCarthy and Handford (2004) explored the ways

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in which Spoken Business English (SBE) is similar or not to informal/casual conversation. Their method has been successfully used in various spoken contexts that include media talk, interviews and talk shows. Interestingly, the top thirty words identified the pronoun ‘I’ as being high in all three word forms in everyday casual conversation (O’Keef fe, McCarthy, Carter 2007). This confirms Awam Ampka’s (September 2003, in conversation with the author) idea that as learners, and people, there is a strong need to express ourselves as subjects of our own worlds. Building locally-based language corpora through a theatrical lens is easily accessible and cheaply available to learners as they are the best resources available in the classroom. O’Keef fe and McCarthy further suggest that in-house teacher corpora can of fer a valuable supplement to published material, particularly in the area of language acquisition because the practices of teaching are then: Interpreted within the contexts of realization out of which more natural utterances emerge when learners make spontaneous[ly] and when they seemed to be attending to the moment-by-moment unfolding of the talk. (O’Keef fe et al. 2007)

Capitalizing on this spontaneity potentially transforms the role language learning plays as a research engagement for the learner and lecturer as opposed to depositing data onto learners or what Freire calls the ‘banking method’ (Freire 1993: 74) as ready-made rote learning recipes. Perhaps more significantly, this type of corpora-building favours the use of words and phrases within particular concrete contexts that can be used as an exploratory investigation into the extent words usually keep company with other words in real communication and language use. This analysis optimizes the learning potential in interactive activities and texts that are closer to what native speakers do when they communicate. Along with other teaching methodologies in the CA classroom, the development of indigenous-based language corpora materials can support learners to express themselves in specific contexts. New specialized corpora can also be innovatively created within CA to represent ‘the target domain more faithfully than corpora which set out to capture everything about a language as a whole’ (O’Keef fe et al. 2007: 159).


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This is especially relevant when we consider the current hotbed of debate regarding learning Irish in this country. In the 1960s and 1970s, Irish state schools adopted more pragmatic approaches to teaching in general as a response to the decline in the standard and use of the language. The educational system reformed the curriculum in the 1980s with the implementation of communicative curricula in secondary schools in the mid-1990s and in primary schools at the beginning of 2000. Despite such changes, researchers have indicated that positive attitudes and motivation regarding the Irish language are not necessarily carried over to subsequent foreign language learning (Markey 2007). In preliminary conclusions, Markey highlights an articulated dif ficulty learners express in learning two languages at the same time especially languages from dif ferent IndoEuropean family branches. The study concludes that learning Irish is not universally recognized as being an aid when learning another language and can even act as a hindrance for some learners. In a report on languages in secondary education in Ireland, David Little believes that only a minority of non-native speakers leave school with the capacity to participate in social or cultural events conducted through the medium of Irish (Little 2003). For the majority, learning Irish is perceived as a necessary evil, a price for citizenship perhaps, but essentially a waste of time (ibid). In the context of the Irish population support for the language, Ó Riagáin’s (1997) analysis of dif ferent studies of Irish from 1973 to 1993 asserts that the majority support government measures to promote the Irish language in society. Despite positive attitudes towards the language, however, teaching Irish as a second language at school seems to have yielded less than satisfactory results. Suf fice to say, the Celtic Tiger did not help the situation in drawing citizens back to the Anglo-sphere culturally and ideologically. According to the 2010 Eurostat report, every EU country has significant proportions of students learning foreign languages in general upper secondary education (Mejer et al. 2010). Ireland and particularly, the United Kingdom are the only countries where significant proportions of students at this level are not studying any foreign language at 19 per cent and 51 per cent respectively (ibid). It is clear that research is pointing towards the need for greater care and ref lection in the management of the dif ferent languages in the Irish

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educational system. This includes designing integrated curricula which support learners to exploit language skills and competences acquired while learning Irish, when approaching a new foreign language. The drama curriculum in primary schools complements the communicative approach to language learning inherent in the Gaeilge curriculum.2 As learners progress to second and third level however, there is less of a fusion between various language-learning approaches found explicitly in the primary curriculum that may be helpful when learning other languages. Regardless of which language, integral to the CA classroom is the promotion of language awareness. Markey has noted this in stating that some learners expressed the view that knowledge and skills that included the ability to recognize similar words and structures they acquired at an early age in Irish is applicable to foreign language learning at a later date (Markey 2007). In the context of developing learner autonomy in any new language, classrooms can gainfully benefit from the contextual nature of learning as never settled. The exchange of ideas and feelings learners disseminate provide a valuable and immediate resource, viz. themselves. Since the 1990s the exceptional scale of immigration into Ireland has largely benefitted the country both economically and culturally, providing the island with more cultural diversity. Coming mainly from the new EU Member States, the majority of ‘newcomers’ are a heterogeneous group in terms of nationality, ethnicity, legal status and language skills. Taking into account that in 2007 non-national students make up approximately 10 per cent of the primary school-going population and 6 per cent of the second-level population, there is a further case for strong, creative, intercultural interventions that promote local language corpora as teaching material for inclusive learning. There is also an opportunity to develop the findings from the Eurostudent report on the Social and Economic Conditions of Student Life in Europe that states Ireland is one of the few European countries that can be classed as socially inclusive for higher education (Donnelly 2011). Along with the Netherlands and Switzerland, out of twenty-five countries, Ireland has a greater mix of students from dif ferent social backgrounds in college. This 2

See NCCA, Primary School Curriculum (Dublin: Government of Ireland Publi cations, 1999: 6).


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integration can of fer learners to negotiate new learning situations that focus on language functions and communicative competence and not solely on grammatical structure. Critical drama pedagogies can engage learners in ways that are sensitive to diverse worldviews and personal circumstances. Augusto Boal demonstrated this when he created ‘Image Theatre’ as a direct response to the communication challenges of his Peru students who spoke forty-seven dif ferent languages in one classroom. As a means of overcoming linguistic dif ficulties and encouraging learner autonomy, Boal used the language of theatre that required participants to make images out of words, sentences and feelings using their bodies as sculpted forms of communication. By examining various emerging themes through improvization, a community of language learners was established that began to articulate, locate and represent specific areas of interest as dramatic statements. These codifications of social reality – the theatrical experience – can potentially act as mirrors through which participants can see themselves, their social situation and the language challenges they encounter in fresh and stimulating ways. This practice compliments the aims and objectives of the learning experience as a ‘naming’ process, where learners organize what is relevant to them into ‘thematic fans’ (Freire 1993: 164) that inform their reality and critique local meaningful narratives to make some sense of time, of history, of their lives. When participants theatrically represent their ‘generative themes’ or ‘named’ content, dialogical communication is opened up that can lead to communicative competence. Drama used in this way goes further in encouraging teachers and learners to critique the position that every act of creating drama is also an act of critiquing our own specific and multi-faceted cultural and intercultural contexts, or as Awam Ampka more eloquently asserts, ‘every act of representation is also an act of interpretation’ (in conversation with the author, September 2003). From a teaching perspective, using drama in this way is a concrete way of establishing the level of the learners’ grammar and vocabulary, discourse management, pronunciation and interactive communication skills within meaningful contexts. Kao and O’Neill (1998) describe three episodic stages that encourage the creation of such contexts beginning with an organic relationship between ‘Process Drama’ and language learning.

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The first, known as the ‘preparatory stage’ creates a context around new essential language. The educator works with learners to prepare them for anticipatory unplanned discourse in a direct and explicit manner, often using previous language learnt before adapting it to their roles in a specific drama moment. Drama works at this stage to introduce necessary vocabulary and specific language structures in a contextual lexico-grammar approach to improve language development and consolidate new learning in alternative situations. Used in this way, drama facilitates CLT whole language teaching in the belief that students learn best not in isolated parts but by working to understand the whole textual meaning(s) before they work on the linguistic forms comprising it. The ‘preparatory stage’ is built on learners’ previous experience and language skills. In accordance to the level of language competence, the process supports language as a tool that conveys informational content of interest to students. Vocabulary acts as contextual clues to help communicate such meanings. The stage sets a subtle groundwork of collective awareness into particular perspectives from diverse cultures available. The ‘participatory stage’ follows as task-based in a communicative focus. Similar to the previous stage, the aim is to provide learners with a meaningful context for using the target language. As learners work to complete a task, they have an opportunity to interact within it. By interacting with others, they are listening to language which may be beyond their present ability, but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use in a Vygotskian approach of scaf folding learning. It is at this critical juncture that my praxis elaborates on Process Drama to include critical drama pedagogical frames that encourage learners to engage with what cultural psychologist Jerome Bruner describes as ‘primary responses’ (1990: 19). Supporting learners in this way involves a process of journeying from consolidating new language during the preparatory stage to creating new forms of meaning through a needs-based dramatic structure. To achieve this as a step-by-step process, I work within a dialogical lens put forward by Freire. After a discussion of the learners’ areas of interest in accordance with their communicative competence, the classroom space is utilized in real time to invite a ‘naming’ of what students consider worth examining in more depth. This sets in motion the context and purpose of the learning.


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On adapting a Boalian ‘Image Theatre’ practice, I capitalize on the description Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT) puts forward as the ‘silent phase’ of learning a new language; that which is the ‘seeing comes before words’ (Berger 1972: front cover). Here, the learner essentially looks and recognizes before they articulate or express meaning in the target language. This is created by focusing on ‘still image making’, a methodology where participants collectively use their bodies to create a gesture, image or picture through which they capture a specific, or series of moment(s) of time. Similar to tableaux, one participant, assigned the role of narrator, tells a story that takes place in the preparatory stage. As a taskbased approach, learners negotiate in groups selections from the narration and represent them silently as pictures/images with their bodies. In these early contacts with image making, learners are encouraged to deliberately focus on the body to highlight their existing understanding of the target language as well as their perceptions, emotions and beliefs on interpreting the text. Language is temporarily removed to allow images to present a particular emotion(s) that invite learners to begin an ‘inquiry into [that] feeling’. (Merriman 1989). A simple example of applying this practice is illustrated by inviting two learners as volunteers to stand outside a circle (or semicircle) formed in the room. The two volunteer actors are now only distinguishable by their colour of clothes, accessories or hair colour in order to displace personalized meanings from the activity that may prove distractive. Bearing in mind that the language content has already been taught during the preparatory stage and can be altered accordingly, a sample instruction may ask the first volunteer to: 1. Enter the circle; 2. Fold her arms; 3. Look downwards at the f loor. In partnership, learner and educator collectively negotiate the next point of engagement where learners assume the role of directors and in turn, begin to instruct other volunteers/actors into the creative space and assume undemanding and comfortable positions, e.g. ‘enter the space, sit on the f loor with your head lowered’. A second actor is then invited to stand behind the first and point at the other actor’s head while looking to the right.

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With the image in place, learners are then asked to interpret the image in the target language by firstly of fering their immediate observations or primary responses as initial reactions and not lengthy narrative stretches. In one particular still-image, students at A2 Waystage/Elementary3 Spanish as L3 explored the signified image as one of power between two people. They located the actor standing as the ‘subject’ and the seated actor as the ‘object’. In interpreting the image, they used their knowledge of Spanish lexico-grammatical structures in context of the still image. One student describes the seated participant as the powerful one or the ‘doer’ in society and interprets the image as ‘la persona con poder’ [the person with power]. Used in a higher level of B1 Threshold/Intermediate class, the immediate interpretations produced more sophisticated language capability (in this case consolidating their use of superlatives) when students asserted the seated actor as ‘la persona más poderosa’ [the most powerful person]. On gradually adding voices to the roles they improvise, participants gradually start to maximize their use of preparatory stage to interpret and read each other’s images as well as escalating moments that lead to their statements and suggestions they and other learners may articulate. Using Boal’s ‘Forum Theatre’ techniques in calling their dramatic action to ‘STOP’ at certain points to allow the classroom to become ‘spectators’ or critical audience participants that intervene in order to interpret, correct, clarify or develop. This of fers the opportunity to inquire into and ref lect on the represented situations as they unfold and ef fectively change the fictional outcomes. This of fers every learner the opportunity to engage at dif ferent levels of contribution and decision-making in the target language. The approach further makes theatre accessible for a collective analysis that dares to create other possibilities. From a CLT perspective, this also allows an evaluation of earlier lessons, as well as addressing the usefulness of the preparatory stage. Perhaps more importantly, such spaces allow for self and peer evaluation in partnership with the lecturer into areas of comprehension, consolidation and clarification as well as ascertaining the f luency levels learners have in actuality. 3

See Council of Europe, Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (Didier 2001: 26–7).


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This process further adheres to suggestions O’Keef fe and Farr (2003) put forward on the ways a corpus of classroom interactions can be ef fectively used with regard to questions that promotes teacher awareness and ref lection. The role of key-organizing questions is central to the role drama interventions can make in facilitating language learning. Referential questions can act as exploratory conversations based on an inquiry based approach which the teacher may not know the answer to. This is a more authentic way than simple display questions where the teacher already has the answer. Brock (1986) examined the ef fect of using more referential questions in the language classroom and stated that by increasing the frequency of referential questions, learners produce longer and complex syntax responses. Display questions produced on average answer length of 4.2 words whereas referential questions produced ten-word answers. By interpreting images in the praxis described here, learners use the potential of referential questioning. General outlines of drama are deliberately non-prescriptive or pre-determined here. Only the theme and structure and not the outcome is set up to encourage learners to drive and determine the process. When a ‘creative tension’ is set up as situations that require urgent solutions from their own lived experiences, drama interventions create in learners the motivation to learn so as to resolve or at least challenge, thereby positioning responsibility on the learner as opposed to the teacher. In short, the importance here is what their images say to participants rather than what the images essentially are. Through the safe medium of meaning-making through fiction, or the ‘big fat lie’ that educationalist Dorothy Heathcote claims drama to embody, certain truths are elicited, explored and discussed through the target language. At the heart of the process, errors are a necessary part of a learner’s progress towards mastery of the language. The role of the educator is a facilitator, involver and participant observer that works in partnership with learners to ref lect on mistakes during the final CA stage of CLT. The third and final stage of CA, called the ‘ref lective stage’ specifically clarifies and revisits discussions during the previous two stages. Structured as f lexible exploratory conversations, further follow-ups on both the drama experience and the language learning used within the process are revisited and reframed so that the teacher-learner observations and evaluations on errors

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negate pidginized and pseudo-communication. The drama component during the ref lective stage enables spaces where participants can rotate their images and presentations to each other in turn as co-correctors and partners in replaying particular moments with hindsight of new learning now clarified and consolidated. Learner types and styles cannot be ignored in this approach. Willing (1987) identified four dif ferent types of learners that include: concrete, analytical, communicative and authority-orientated learners. Apart from the last type that is heavily reliant on sequential progression and didactic learning methodologies, the other three look for spontaneous, imaginativefocused tasks based on specific problems that incorporate hypotheticaldeductive reasoning in adaptable and f lexible ways. This is where the triad focus of CLT is important as the preparatory and ref lective stages are structured to support diverse needs of learners according to a myriad of learning types. The four types of learners are all quite dif ferent, and probably respond best to dif fering teaching and theoretical language learning approaches. Some learners may not particularly benefit from doing lots of communicative activities, and some students benefit from and prefer grammar translation and drills demonstrating an eclectic type of learner that should inform and broaden the scope of teaching methodologies creating what Woozley (2004) calls the ‘informed eclectic’ in creating a synthesis from existing paradigms that informs a practice to create new language approaches. According to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR), there exists a strong line of progression where learners are expected to move away from familiar matters and likely situations where simple connections are made to more independent and complex textual analysis on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/ her field of specialization (CEFR). Degrees of f luency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain is a benchmark for B2/Vantage/Upper-intermediate learners where more critical interpretations are expected from more implicit meanings as learning progresses even further. The aim is to use language f lexibly and ef fectively that produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organizational patterns, connectors


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and cohesive devices (CEFR). Supporting learners to achieve autonomy in demonstrating these particular levels is addressed by examining theatrically learners’ own perspectives, ‘generative themes’ that arise from such general (global) to the particular (local) topics according to individual/ group learning capabilities and experience. Throughout all three CA stages, there is a strong potential for drama as a means of engendering authentic based materials as supporting learner autonomy. As a pedagogical tool, drama dares to ask what kind of society we want for future language learners as citizens in today’s economic crisis. This is more now more relevant than ever in a dominant mono-cultural world for many learners in Ireland today as expressed through entrapping consumerism, unrelenting information highways, condensing space and time in what Paul Virilio terms ‘speed space’. Without engaging learners in meaningful and relevant ways, an identity of dislocation is sponsored. What is left in its profitable and disempowering wake is a toll road to confined individualism and a zombie culture of insomniac conformity to pseudo-communication. Poor language skills among Irish graduates are borne out in depressing statistics that rank Irish college students at second from the bottom of a twenty-five country league in Europe when it comes to speaking foreign languages. Unlike 20 per cent of third-level students in Europe who claim to be proficient in at least two foreign languages, Ireland can only boost a tight-lipped 5 per cent, better only than Turkey. It is not however a question of lack of languages of fered to learners. A spokesperson for the Department of Education stated that 81 per cent of second-level pupils studied three languages, namely Irish, English and a continental language to Leaving Certificate level, and more than 70 per cent of schools of fered two foreign languages or more. Vice President of Google John Herlihy (Editorial 2010) further stresses the need for Irish students to catch up with continental European counterparts who work in Ireland with multilingual competencies. Statistics illustrate that Irish workers only constitute 25–30 per cent of the work force amidst bumper profits at Google’s Irish operation (Ibid). The point is also spelt out in a recent GradIreland survey, carried out by the careers services in the higher education colleges in Ireland that state one-third of employers have an expressed concern about a shortage of foreign language

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skills (Donnelly 2011). As far back as 2005, the Review of Quality Assurance in Irish Universities highlighted the overall low exposure of Irish students to foreign languages. This is a challenge shared by other English-speaking countries, but nevertheless could constitute a long-term disadvantage to individual Irish students, not to mention wider social and economic ef fects, given that the labour market is now international. In today’s economic recession, promoting language learning autonomy through drama as an interventionist approach encourages the possibility of re-addressing a crisis of confidence, especially in core values across all institutions. Deep-seated in the Irish texts are historical and cultural contexts that frame the Irish diaspora. Embedded in the Irish language, literature and song substantiates the traditional view that Irish people think in story. No matter how distinct on indistinct in style, voice or plot, every story a learner brings to the learning experience however underdeveloped that may be, there lies a common function of ‘someone telling something to someone about something’, a role that communicative drama interventions can capitalize on. Cork philosopher, Richard Kearney validates the importance of eliciting meanings from such lived experiences from students often overheard and shared with each other before a class begins as answering a basic human need: ‘Telling stories is as basic to human beings as eating. More so in fact, for while food makes us live, stories are what makes our lives worth living. They are what make our condition human’ (Kearney 2002: 3). Developing autonomy in language learning through drama is one small but significant way of inviting learners to move from a more teachercentred, controlled, grammar-based methodology towards freer, Deweyian, pedagogical learning contexts.

References Armitage, J. (ed) (2001). Speed-Space. Virilio Live. London: Sage Publications. Berger, J. (1972). Ways of Seeing. London: British Broadcasting Corporation.


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Boal, A. (1992). Games for Actors and Non-Actors. London: Routledge. Brock, C.A. (1986). ‘The Ef fects of Referential Questions on ESL Classroom Discourse’, TESOL Quarterly, 20(1), 47–59. Brumfit, C.J. and Johnson, K. (eds) (1979). The Communicative Approach to Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1997). The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chaudron, C. (1988). Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cook, V. (2000). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Second edition. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books. Dewey, J. (2003). The School and Society and The Child and the Curriculum. New York: Dover Publications. Editorial (2010). ‘Why it’s Really Time to Mind our Languages in Schools’, Irish Independent, 29 September Available at: accessed 1 October 2010. Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Gagné, R.M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction. New York: CBS College Publishing. Gardner, H. (2004). Changing Minds: The Art and Science of Changing our own and other People’s Minds. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Goodman, N. (1978). Ways of Worldmaking. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. Handford, M. and McCarthy, M.J. (2004). ‘Invisible to Us: A Preliminary Corpusbased Study of Spoken Business English: Discourse in the Professions’. In Connor, U. and Upton, T. (eds), Perspective from corpus linguistics, 1–8. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Heathcote, D. (1991). Collected Writings on Education and Drama. New York: Northwestern University Press. Higher Education Authority and the Irish Universities Quality Board (2005). Review of Quality Assurance in Irish Universities. Dublin: Government Publications. Johnson, K. and Morrow, K. (1981). Communication in the classroom. England: Longman Group Ltd. Kearney, R. (2002). On Stories. London: Routledge. Larsen-Freeman, D. and Long, M.H. (1991). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London: Longman.

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Markey, M. (2007). Minority Language Learning in the Irish Educational System and its Inf luence on Subsequent Foreign Language Learning, V° Congreso CEISAL – Bruselas, 11–14 April. Mejer, L. et al. (2010). Eurostat: Statistics in Focus. European Union: EU. Merriman, V. (1989). 2D Drama and Dance. Leicester: LEA, Autumn/Winter. O’Keef fe, A. and Farr, F. (2003). ‘Using Language Corpora in Language Teacher Education: Pedagogic, Linguistic and Cultural Insights’, TESOL Quarterly, 37(3), 389–418. O’Keef fe, A., McCarthy, M.J. and Carter, R.A. (2007). From Corpus to Classroom: Language Use and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O’Neill, C. (1995). Drama Worlds: A Framework for Process Drama. Portsmouth: Heinneman Drama. Ó Laoire, M. (2005). ‘Three Languages in the Schools in Ireland’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 171, 95–113. Ó Riagáin, P. (1997). Language policy and social reproduction: Ireland, 1893–1993. Gloucestershire: Clarendon Press. Paterson, D.L. (1995). Contribution to Webster’s World of Cultural Democracy. University of Nebraska accessed 10 November 2010. Prator, C.H. and Celce-Murcia, M. (1979). ‘An Outline of Language Teaching Approaches’. In Celce-Murcia, M. and McIntosh, L. (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 3–5. New York: Newbury House. Read, D. and Simon, S. (eds) (1975). Humanistic Education Sourcebook. New York: Englewood Clif fs. Schneider, K.P. and Barron, A. (eds) (2008). Variational Pragmatics: A Focus on Regional Varieties in Pluricentric Languages. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Scholes, R. and Kellogg, R. (1968). The Nature of Narrative. Oxford University Press. Schön, D.A. (1990). The Ref lective Practitioner – How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books. Walsh, S. (2006). Investigating Classroom Discourse. New York: Routledge.

Nataša Gajšt

Autonomous Business and Economics Terminology Acquisition in a Bilingual Context: A Glossary Based Approach

1 Introduction Generally speaking, most courses of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) cover a number of occupations – related language skills and communicative language competences with linguistic competence being just one of them. Without doubt, enhancing learners’ lexical and semantic competences is a significant part of any language course. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL) states that ‘[l]exical competence, knowledge of, and ability to use, the vocabulary, consists of lexical elements and grammatical elements’ (2002: 110). CEFRL also addresses lexical semantics, which ‘deals with questions of word meaning, e.g. relation of word to general context […] [and] interlexical relations such as synonymy/antonymy; hyponymy; collocation; part-whole relations; componential analysis; translation equivalence’ (2002: 115). In her discussion on language learning, Knight claims that: Vocabulary acquisition is considered by many to be the single most important aspect of foreign language learning. Not only do the majority of students studying foreign languages cite vocabulary as their number one priority […] but it is often considered a priority by teachers as well. (1994: 285)

Within the framework of formal education, learners at beginner and intermediate levels acquire foreign language vocabulary mostly through course books. To some extent this also holds true for more advanced levels

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of foreign language learning, i.e. the university-level language courses in which the ESP course books are often supplemented by dif ferent authentic texts which contain a lot of technical terminology. Technical terminology acquisition therefore presents a major part in tertiary-level ESP courses as it is believed that the majority of students entering these courses have a good grammatical and lexical command of general foreign language. That is, they are considered to be independent users of a foreign language. However, they may not be as proficient in the vocabulary of their occupational domain, which, according to CEFRL, ‘embraces everything concerned with a person’s activities and relations in the exercise of his or her occupation’ (2002: 15). If we focus on the process of foreign language acquisition as such, it can be claimed that learners may acquire the language pertaining to their occupation or field of study by performing dif ferent types of language tasks and activities and by adopting various learning strategies. Without doubt, extensive reading of relevant occupation-specific material such as professional and scientific papers and books greatly contributes to foreign language learning. A number of authors have looked at reading as an activity for vocabulary learning. For instance, Tumolo (2007) deliberates on the role that reading has in vocabulary acquisition by looking at various approaches of indirect and direct language instruction as proposed by Krashen (1981, 1982, 1989) and Brown (1994). In his study on ESP vocabulary and reading, Tumolo thus recommends a combination of ‘direct and indirect instructions to assist the learners in their process of vocabulary learning, that is, a balance between implicit and explicit, indirect and direct, teaching procedures for learning a foreign language’ (480). We can look at this approach as the combination of in-classroom language instruction and the learners’ individual out-of-classroom study, i.e. reading, of longer texts. When reading profession-related texts, the learners are therefore likely to acquire a lot of specific technical vocabulary. Furthermore, they learn new words incidentally. In addition to the above stated advantages of reading as a means of vocabulary learning, the motivation factor is also important. We believe that learners will most likely be more motivated to read longer texts if they are

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allowed to choose the material they find interesting and relevant for their studies as well as appropriate for their level of language competence rather than being told by their language teacher what to read. Consequently, those learners who are less proficient in a foreign language may decide to choose the texts that include technical terminology but are still not as demanding as the material selected by the more advanced ones. We have already mentioned that learners choose dif ferent strategies and techniques in order to learn new words. While Lessard-Cloustro (2008) discusses various approaches the students adopt when learning technical vocabulary, Mohseni-Far concentrates on the process and the advantages of note-taking as one of the techniques that help language learners deal with new vocabulary by stating that: After getting information about a lexical unit, learners may take notes, in the form of vocabulary notebooks, vocabulary cards, or simply notes along the margins or between the lines (marginal glosses).Note-taking is one of the basic strategies often recommended by researchers in the field of vocabulary learning. (2007: 146)

Looking at our topic from a dif ferent perspective, we have to touch upon the learners’ ability to understand new technical terminology in a foreign language. We can ask ourselves what one does when faced with an unknown word or phrase. The answer is rather simple; surely, he or she looks up its meaning in a dictionary. That is why learners should use bilingual and monolingual dictionaries while reading texts in a foreign language. However, despite the abundance of printed and online resources available nowadays, learners frequently do not use them enough or they do not know how to use them appropriately. Today, learners often trust and heavily rely on the Internet as the main source of information. It goes without saying that not all the information posted online is reliable. If the learners are not aware of the pitfalls of the Internet, they may become easily misled. In our opinion, language teachers should present these dangers to their learners and instruct them how to be critical towards the information they find in any resource. Therefore, language teachers should help their students develop and acquire the skills of using monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and glossaries in an ef fective and appropriate way.

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Several authors have discussed the suitability of monolingual and/ or bilingual dictionaries in language learning (Laufer and Hadar 1997; Hulstijn, Hollander and Greidanus 1996; Hunt and Beglar 2005). It has been established that both types of dictionaries have their own benefits and drawbacks and that these benefits and drawbacks are closely linked to the level of the learners’ language knowledge. Apart from monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, which are most commonly known, the bilinguialized compromise dictionaries are gaining in importance. According to Mohseni-Far: [A] bilingualized entry typically includes: L2 definitions, L2 sentences information or L1 synonyms of the headword. These hybrid and fused dictionaries essentially provide translations in addition to the good features of monolingual dictionaries. Using bilingualized dictionaries is more ef ficient than using separate bilingual and monolingual dictionaries, and they are more f lexible because beginning and intermediate learners can rely on the L1 translation and advanced learners can concentrate more on L2 part of the entry. (2007: 114)

The above quotation clearly shows the benefits of these bilingual hybrid dictionaries for foreign language learning. Furthermore, we believe that bilingual instruction of specific technical terminology is particularly beneficial for the learners as they have to be aware of the particularities of technical terminology use in both L1 and L2 contexts. This is particularly important when there are dif ferences between the two systems. For instance, a number of concepts in accounting or company law are specific for individual national systems and are thus not internationally compatible. The ability to learn (savoir apprendre) presents itself as another important factor at all stages of learning. It stands for the ability of learners to incorporate what they learn into their existing knowledge, be it of a language or any other subject. According to CEFRL, language learning abilities ‘are developed in the course of the experience of learning. They enable the learner to deal more ef fectively and independently with new language learning challenges, to see what options exist and to make better use of opportunities’ (2002: 106). Language learning abilities include study skills and heuristic skills. Study skills are the learners’ ability to take advantage of teaching situations they participate in (CEFRL 2002). We can claim that through improved study skills learners develop their language learning


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awareness, or, according to CEFRL ‘[the] ability to use the available material for independent learning […]; [the] ability to organize and use materials for self-directed learning; […] [the] awareness of one’s own strengths and weaknesses as a learner; [and the] ability to identify one’s own needs and goals’ (2002: 107–8). Heuristic skills are defined in CEFRL as ‘the ability of the learner (particularly in using target language reference sources) to find, understand and if necessary convey new information; [and] the ability to use new technologies (e.g. by searching for information in databases, hypertexts, etc.)’ (2001: 108). It can be concluded that the above skills contribute greatly to autonomous learning, which is a significant component of the university-level language courses. In other words, at this advanced level the students are supposed to study a lot of material on their own, which should also be true for foreign language learning. In his work on the autonomy in language learning, Benson (2001) defines the concept of autonomy as the learners’ inclination to be responsible for their own learning and believes that, in order to be autonomous, learners should have the opportunity to be in charge of their learning. Furthermore, teachers should provide such learning opportunities for their students that would enhance their independent study. Benson also claims that ‘greater autonomy is a legitimate goal of language education and […] autonomous learning is more or less equivalent to ef fective learning’ (1997: 18). In addition, learner independence in knowledge acquisition at tertiary level is consistent with the principles of the Bologna Declaration. Within the framework of lifelong learning of languages with reference to the common European policy on language learning, Bocanegra-Valle (2008) deals with the notions of lifelong learning, autonomous learning and the concept of raising language awareness through authentic texts within the context of an ESP course. We can thus argue that one of the goals of language teaching should be to instruct the students how to learn a foreign language on their own, i.e. outside a formal classroom setting. To summarize, our discussion so far has considered various aspects of learning a foreign language. We primarily focused on the acquisition of technical vocabulary in a foreign language while reading, on the use and the appropriateness of dictionaries and glossaries to facilitate the understanding

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of new vocabulary and on the autonomous and lifelong learning of a foreign language at the tertiary level. Based on these theoretical foundations, we designed an assignment (seminar paper) for the students taking Business English courses at tertiary level to achieve the following goals related to the acquisition of technical terminology. Primarily, we wanted to help the students of economics and business to increase their knowledge of specific, profession-related vocabulary in a bilingual context. Secondly, we wished to increase their autonomy as language learners by means of independent extensive reading of relevant material and to improve their (appropriate) use of the available printed and online terminology resources in the setting of bilingual (L2 and L1) language learning. For this assignment, the students were instructed to compile a glossary of technical terms and their definitions in English and in Slovenian (a detailed structure of the seminar paper is given in Appendix 1). They had to divide their seminar paper into three parts; the ‘introduction’, the ‘core part’, and the ‘comments’. The task set in the ‘introduction’ was to help them focus on the reasons for choosing a particular text for extensive reading whereas the aim of task in the ‘comments’ section served as their ref lection on the processes of autonomous learning of professional vocabulary in a bilingual context. The goal of the ‘core part’, i.e. the selection of technical words and phrases, their definitions and translations, was the actual learning of technical terminology in a bilingual context. The entire activity was based on the following hypotheses: H1 More than half of all students will have no problems in selecting their reading material. H2 More than half of all students will have no major problems in selecting business and economics vocabulary. H3 More than half of all students will not find it dif ficult to find suitable definitions for the selected business and economics vocabulary. H4 More than half of all students will find it dif ficult to translate the words and definitions into Slovenian. H5 More than half of all students will consider the task as beneficial, despite its dif ficulty.


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2 Methodology 2.1 Seminar paper design The objective of the seminar paper was to ref lect the learners’ individual work and was meant to show their ability to deal with technical terminology in any area of business English. It presented a part of compulsory business English courses, i.e. Business English 1 and Business English 3. As regards the choice of reading material, the students were allowed to choose the texts they had to read for other courses or independently from any other course they took. Those students who took the Business English 1 course were instructed to select the articles from professional daily newspapers or weekly magazines (e.g. Business Week, Financial Times, Wall Street Journal, The Economist, The Guardian, etc.), professional books or other business and economics related professional papers. They were permitted to select general business topics and terminology because a vast majority of them had little or almost no prior knowledge of business and economics vocabulary. On the other hand, the students taking the Business English 3 course were told to select scientific papers or more comprehensive books about business and economics based on their specializations within the economics and business studies. That is, the students of accounting, auditing and taxation could only choose the texts on accounting, auditing and taxation; the students of finance and banking had to work with the materials on finance and banking; the students of marketing were to select papers and books on marketing, and so forth. The participants in the Business English 3 course were advised to select less common technical words and phrases since their knowledge of core business vocabulary was rather good. In addition, all students were recommended to pick the topics and texts which they found interesting and useful. The structure of the activity ref lected the goals as presented in the introduction.

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2.2 The students We assigned the seminar paper to the students taking the university-level Business English 1 and Business English 3 courses in the winter semesters of the academic years 2008/2009 and 2009/2010. The Business English 1 course participants were beginners as regards business and economics terminology whereas the Business English 3 course students had received two years of Business English instruction prior to taking part in this course. Table 26 presents the distribution and the number of students who submitted their seminar papers. The data ref lect the number of students enrolled. Table 26 The Number of Students Submitting the Seminar Papers Per Course and Per Academic Year

Academic year

Number of students per course Business English 1

Business English 3

2008/2009

44

23

2009/2010

23

46

Total

67

69

2.3 Task procedure The entire procedure of preparing the seminar paper was divided into three stages. In the first stage (at the beginning of each academic year), the students were given detailed instructions concerning the task. They had two weeks to choose their reading material and technical terminology from the texts. In the second stage, the students received the information about the main and the most important sources for the terminological part of the seminar paper, the selection of technical terminology. We presented the available relevant printed and online resources (monolingual and bilingual specialized economics and business dictionaries, glossaries and databases).1 1

See Appendix 2 for a selection of online glossaries and dictionaries.


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We particularly pointed out the use of Evroterm-Multilingual terminology database and Evrokorpus (parallel bilingual corpora).2 We also advised the students to consult a number of dictionaries available at the Faculty’s reference library. In the final stage, the students had ten weeks to find the appropriate definitions of their selected lexical items and translate them into Slovenian as well as to write the introduction and the comments. After those ten weeks, the seminar papers were submitted for assessment. 2.4 Data collection After collecting and grading the papers from the linguistic viewpoint, i.e. the suitability of the selected definitions based on the contextual use of technical terms and the correctness of the corresponding translations, we also performed a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the students’ ref lections about the task in general and about its individual aspects. When analysing the submitted comments, we concentrated on (1) text selection, (2) the selection of technical terminology, (3) the search for and the choice of definitions, (4) various aspects of translation, and (5) the students’ personal attitudes towards the activity and their individual perceptions of their achievements. Stemming from the hypotheses given in the introduction, we focused on how the students approached the selection of reading material, the reasons for choosing particular texts and any dif ficulties they might have faced in the process. As for the choice of technical terminology, we were interested in determining on what grounds the students selected the terminology and if they had any problems doing so. The analysis of definitions focused on the issues related to the search and choice of appropriate definitions with regard to the contextual use of terminology whereas the translation element of the activity was observed mainly from the translation process itself, i.e. the search for the correct Slovenian equivalents of 2

Evroterm –Multilingual terminology database and Evrokorpus can be accessed at: ; .

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technical terms. Last but not least, we were interested in finding out the students’ attitudes and feelings towards the activity and if they thought they had benefited anything from it.

3 Results For the purpose of this research, we analysed the students’ comments as defined in Data collection above. For both academic years, sixty seven seminar papers submitted by the students taking Business English 1 course and sixty nine seminar papers submitted by the Business English 3 students were examined. We present the results both from quantitative and qualitative aspects. The qualitative part of the analysis is given in the form of the actual comments made by the students. We divided the comments into two categories – positive responses and negative responses. 3.1 Text selection As explained above, we first analysed the students’ selection of texts. The results concerning this aspect of the assignment are given in Table 27. Table 27 Selection of Texts Students’ responses per course (in per cents) Academic year

Business English 1

Business English 3

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

2008/2009

39

61

63

37

2009/2010

40

60

65

35

Average

39.5

60.5

64

36


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We see that among the Business English 1 students, 39 per cent and 40 per cent of the students in the same groups (in 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 respectively) had no major dif ficulties when choosing the texts for analysis. A lot of them stated that they liked the fact that they could select the article on their own. Other responses were:3 – I decided to choose a topic which was new and unknown to me. – I found the contents interesting. – I liked the title of the article, so I chose it. – It was easy for me to understand the contents. In contrast, 61 per cent of the students in 2008/2009 and 60 per cent of them in 2009/2010 responded negatively to the process of selecting the reading material. That is, more than half of all students found this part of the activity demanding. Let us enumerate their prevailing reasons: – I didn’t like the contents (the terminology was suitable but the topic was not interesting). – I spent too much time looking for the articles. – It was dif ficult for me to find the article with enough economics-related terminology. – It was dif ficult to select the topic, as too many articles from dif ferent fields of economics and business were available. – It was hard to choose an interesting topic because I did not know what was interesting for me. – The article was too long. – The topic of the contributions was too dif ficult for me to understand. Compared to these responses, the average of 64 per cent of the students taking the Business English 3 course (63 per cent in 2008/2009 and 65 per cent in 2009/20210) responded to the selection of material in a positive way: 3

The statements in italics in this section and in all further sections are the most typical and most frequently found comments made by the students in their seminar papers.

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– The material will be useful also in other courses. – The material will be useful for my future career. – The text I chose is relevant for my final thesis. On the other hand, less than half of the students from the two Business English 3 groups (37 per cent in 2008/2009 and 35 per cent in 2009/2010) perceived the selection of material as demanding. The students were quite unanimous in their comments. The most typical reasons are presented below: – A lot of material was too general, not specific enough. – The texts I looked at did not include a lot of dif ficult economics vocabulary. – Too much material was available and this was a problem for me. 3.2 Selection of technical terminology The second area we analysed was the comments regarding the vocabulary selection. Table 28 presents the results for all four groups of students. Table 28 Selection of Technical Terminology Students’ responses per course (in per cents) Academic year

Business English 1

Business English 3

Positive

Negative

Positive

Negative

2008/2009

56

44

65

35

2009/2010

25

75

48

52

Average

40.5

59.6

56.5

43.5

The data obtained for this section revealed that, on average, 40.5 per cent of Business English 1 students (56 per cent in 2008/2009 and 25 per cent in 2009/2010) claimed not having any major problems with this part of the task. Their reasons were:


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– It was good that I could choose the words and phrases that were not very dif ficult but also not too easy. – It was great that I was allowed to choose the words that I found inter esting. – There was enough vocabulary in the article to choose from. Looking at the negative feedback from the same two groups of students, we see that in 2008/2009, 44 per cent of the students perceived this part of the assignment demanding while in 2009/2010 this percentage was higher (75 per cent). They mainly gave the following reasons: – I had a lot of problems in finding dif ficult words. – I was unable to distinguish between general and professional expressions. – It was dif ficult for me to understand the contents of the article. – My knowledge of economics-related terminology is limited. – The text did not include enough economics terms, so I had to choose two texts. The distribution of responses made by the Business English 3 students is as follows. More than half of them (65 per cent in 2008/2009 and 48 per cent in 2009/2010) expressed no major dif ficulties in choosing the technical terms for their seminar papers. Some of their most frequent comments were: – I knew a lot of terminology in Slovenian because of my courses in economics. – I think that the words I chose will be useful for me in my future studies and in my job. – The vocabulary I picked will be useful when I start writing my final thesis. – There were many economics-related words in the text I chose. On the other hand, the average of 43.5 per cent of the students in these groups (35 per cent in 2008/2009 and 52 per cent in 2009/2010) reported having dif ficulties. Their prevailing (negative) comments are stated below:

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– In general, it was dif ficult for me to understand specialized terminology. – Sometimes I didn’t find the definitions, so I based my selection of words on the available definitions. It was hard. – There were so many economics related words and phrases and it was dif ficult for me to pick the required fifteen. 3.3 Search for and choice of definitions The analysis of the students’ comments revealed that most of them mainly discussed the process of finding the definitions. The distribution of their responses is shown in Table 29. Table 29 Search for and Choice of Definitions Students’ responses per course (in per cent) Academic year

Business English 1

Business English 3

Positive response

Negative response

Positive response

Negative response

2008/2009

27

73

24

76

2009/2010

33

67

11

89

30

70

17.5

82.5

The results for this section show that 27 per cent of the Business English 1 students in 2008/2009 and 33 per cent of them in 2009/2010 reported the search for definitions as unproblematic, stating the following reasons: – I’m good at searching for the information on the Internet. It was easy to find the definitions. – The online dictionaries and glossaries were very useful. I found all the definitions there. – There were plenty of online glossaries, which made the search very easy.


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In contrast, the average of 70 per cent of the students in these two groups (73 per cent in 2008/2009 and 67 per cent in 2009/2010) had quite a few problems. They wrote: – I am not good at searching for the definitions in dictionaries and online. – I had to look at many resources and this was annoying. – It took too long to find all the definitions. – It was almost impossible to find all the definitions. – It was dif ficult to define some phrases. – It was dif ficult to find the definitions and to choose the correct one when more were available. – Sometimes I didn’t find the definitions of certain phrases – I had to make combinations. – The definitions in the dictionary I had were too short for what we were supposed to do. The distribution of the answers obtained from the two groups of the Business English 3 students exhibits that less than one fifth of them (the average of 17.5 per cent) reported no major dif ficulties in the search for the definitions, commenting that finding the definitions was not as dif ficult as it had seemed at the onset of the task. However, as many as 82.5 per cent of all the students who took this course (i.e. 76 per cent in 2008/2009 and 89 per cent in 2009/2010) wrote about the problems they had met. Some of their comments were: – I found out that the definitions found online were sometimes wrong. – I had a lot of problems because my English is not very good. – I had problems in finding the appropriate definitions because of the dif ferences in the systems (subject-related notions). – I had to use many dif ferent resources, which was time-consuming and dif ficult. – It was dif ficult for me to find long definitions that we were required to provide in the paper.

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– Sometimes it was hard to find a good professional explanation of some terms. – The information on the Internet was not always the most suitable one. This was the biggest problem. – The terminology I selected was very specific. Because of that, the definitions were hard to find. – The words I chose were very specific and they were not the first hit on Google. – There is a lack of good specialized dictionaries. I could not find some definitions not even on the Internet. Parallel to these results, we also conducted the analysis of the resources used by the students. We established that most of the participants in the two Business English 1 courses (73 per cent) consulted general monolingual online dictionaries (e.g. , and ) and only a small percentage of them (23 per cent) decided to find the adequate definitions in specialized dictionaries and glossaries (e.g. , , , ). Compared to these results, we found that the Business English 3 students relied on general monolingual dictionaries only occasionally (12 per cent of them) and that a vast majority used the definitions found in specialized glossaries and dictionaries (88 per cent). 3.4 Translation process Table 30 exhibits the results of the students’ comments regarding the translation element of the seminar paper.

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Autonomous Business and Economics Terminology Acquisition Table 30 Translation (Translating Vocabulary and Translation Process) Students’ responses per course (in per cent) Academic year

Business English 1

Business English 3

Positive response

Negative response

Positive response

Negative response

2008/2009

5

95

22

78

2009/2010

0

100

4

96

Average

2.5

97.5

13

87

The qualitative analysis of the comments made by the Business English 1 students showed that only two students in 2008/2009 reported having no dif ficulties with the translation. Their main argument was that translation did not present any serious trouble. However, 97.5 per cent of the students in these two groups (95 per cent in 2008/2009 and 100 per cent in 2009/2010) perceived the translation of lexical items and definitions as very complicated. The qualitative part of the analysis revealed that they had problems both with the translation of the vocabulary and the translation process in general: – Finding the translations of specific terms was very hard. – For me, it was dif ficult to choose the right word according to the context. – I didn’t imagine that the seminar paper will take so long to write. – I had to look into a lot of resources. This was demanding and it took a lot of time. – It was dif ficult to find the translation of the entire phrase. – Translation of entire sentences was dif ficult. The research into the comments written by the Business English 3 students revealed that only 13 per cent of them had no major dif ficulties with the translation stage of the seminar paper (22 per cent in 2008/2009 and 4 per cent in 2009/2010). In their comments they claimed that it was easier than it had appeared at the beginning.

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However, 87 per cent of the students in these two groups (78 per cent in 2008/2009 and 96 per cent in 2009/2010) claimed that they had faced major problems: – A lot of other specific terms were ‘hidden’ within the definitions themselves, which made the translation even more dif ficult. – Dif ferent systems do not have corresponding terms. – For me, choosing the correct translation of some words among various ones was a problem. – I had problems because there is a lack of good specialized bilingual dictionaries. – It was hard to find Slovenian expressions for certain terms. – It was impossible to translate directly because the definitions were very complicated. – Online translation tool Google Translate was unreliable so I had to do it on my own. – Since the definitions had to be long, translating them took a lot of time. – Sometimes the Slovenian translations of terms do not even exist. – The biggest problem was my not so good knowledge of English vocabulary.

2.5 Students’ attitudes and perceptions of their personal achievements In the final part of the results section, we focus on the students’ comments regarding their attitudes towards the assignment and perceptions of their personal achievements. Table 31 presents the results.

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Autonomous Business and Economics Terminology Acquisition Table 31 Students’ Attitudes and Perceptions of Personal Achievements Students’ response per course (in per cent) Academic year

Business English 1

Business English 3

Positive response

Negative response

Positive response

Negative response

2008/2009

90

10

85

15

2009/2010

95

5

81

19

Average

92.5

7.5

83

17

The average percentage of Business English 1 students with positive response in both academic years was 92.5 per cent (90 per cent in 2008/2009 and 95 per cent in 2009/2010). They gave a wide range of reasons: – Although it was a dif ficult task, it turned out to be interesting. – Apart from learning new vocabulary, I also learned a lot about what is going on in the economy. – By searching for the explanations of specific terms, I learned many other economics-related words. – It was a good activity for using dif ferent resources. – It was a good reading activity, which encouraged me to read more. – It was my first seminar paper in English and I’m proud of it. – My terminology research skills increased a lot. – Searching for definitions required a lot of reading, which was good. – The seminar paper encouraged me to learn professional terminology. Only 7.5 per cent of the students in this course (10 per cent in 2008/2009 and 5 per cent in 2009/2010) wrote that the assignment was demanding. Their comments were similar: – I thought the task was going to be easy, but it turned out to be dif ficult. – It was dif ficult because I don’t speak English very well.

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The results obtained from the analysis of the comments made by the participants of the Business English 3 courses show the following. 83 per cent of them (85 per cent in 2008/2009 and 81 per cent in 2009/2010) labelled the activity as useful. We selected the most frequent comments: – I learned a lot of new terminology, which will be useful for my future career. – I will be able to use the acquired knowledge in other courses. – In my opinion, independent research and self-study are a very good way to learn something useful. – It was a good activity for extensive reading. – It was a good activity for learning how to research and translate specific terminology. – It was a good practice for using dictionaries and glossaries. – Learning vocabulary in context is better than learning it in an isolated way. – My knowledge of my specific topic increased greatly. – Now I know the dif ference between only knowing the word and explaining it. On the other hand, 17 per cent of the Business English 3 students (15 per cent in 2008/2009 and 19 per cent in 2009/2010) were not positive about the assignment: – It took far too much time and ef fort to write the seminar paper than I had expected. – My poor knowledge of English made the task extremely demanding. – The task was not as easy as I had expected.


461

4 Discussion The quantitative and qualitative analysis of the students’ comments about the activity revealed some interesting points. Looking at the results obtained when analysing the students’ comments about the selection of reading material, it can be established that the problems reported by the participants of the Business English 1 courses stem primarily from their lack of knowledge of business and economicsrelated issues and relevant technical terminology. Since the students were instructed at the onset of the task to choose the material they found attractive, it was also interesting to note that some struggled with finding what was interesting for them while others complained about the length of the articles. On the other hand, the students taking the Business English 3 courses related to their selected reading material much more easily and the majority of them saw the connection between what they read and its usefulness for their study in other courses as well as for their professional careers. Considering H1 in which we anticipated that most students would have no problems in selecting their reading material, the analysis shows that the majority of the Business English 1 students had problems in selecting the reading material, whereas the Business English 3 students did not. For that reason, H1 is rejected for the Business English 1 courses and confirmed for the Business English 3 courses. Similarly, the selection of technical terminology and the related process strongly depended on the students’ familiarity with business and economics. The examination of the students’ responses shows that the students taking the two Business English 1 courses struggled with dif ferentiating between general vocabulary and technical terminology. They also found the contents of the articles dif ficult per se. Contrary to that, the Business English 3 course participants reported not having any major dif ficulties and again related the selection of technical terminology to its applicability and usefulness for their studies and professional career. In our opinion, these dif ferences are mainly the result of the students’ familiarity with economics and business topics and related terminology. Here we have to draw attention to the quantitative data corresponding to this part of the

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assignment, that is, there is a significant dif ference between the two groups of the Business English 1 students and the two groups of the students in Business English 3 classes regarding the percentages of the students who had trouble in selecting the lexical items for translation. We can attribute this dif ference to the number of submitted seminar papers per course in both academic years. Nevertheless, following H2, which assumed that most students would have no major problems in selecting business or economics vocabulary, and based on both quantitative and qualitative results, we reject H2 for the Business English 1 courses since more than half of all students gave negative response and we confirm it for the Business English 3 courses because less than half of students provided negative feedback. The third element we analysed was the selection of adequate definitions of technical terminology. The results reveal that finding adequate definitions presented more problems for both groups of students than anticipated. Although the Business English 1 students were permitted to include brief definitions in their seminar papers, a vast majority had problems finding them. The prevalent reasons why they found this part of the task demanding were the time spent on searching for the explanations of terms and the overall lack of professional English terminology knowledge. They also heavily depended on online resources and were, in general, not very critical towards the information found in these resources. That is, only few students realized that not all the definitions they found online were suitable in terms of the context in which the selected lexical items occurred. Here we have to bear in mind that these students were only beginning to familiarize themselves with business and economics terminology. On the other hand, the Business English 3 students were quite aware of the pitfalls of online definitions. We assume that this is the result of them having a good general understanding of business and economics concepts in addition to a good command of Business English. Although they were able to critically assess the information included in those definitions and their appropriateness in a given context, they still claimed that this part of the task was challenging for them. Based on the data related to this part of the activity and the assumption in H3 that more than half of all students would not find it dif ficult to find suitable definitions for the selected business and


463

economics vocabulary, we must reject H3 for Business English 1 as well as for Business English 3 courses. All the students whose seminar papers were analysed in this research experienced the translation process as the most dif ficult part of this task. Moreover, they mostly described it as extremely dif ficult. The analysis of their comments disclosed that some of them did not know how to deal with the translations of words and phrases for which they could not find Slovenian equivalents. This is supported by their comments concerning the translation process in the assignment. Almost all students, regardless of the language course they took, had major problems in deciding on the correct translations when more options were available. It seems that they could not determine which words would be appropriate in a given context. In addition, quite a number of them commented on the lack of relevant bilingual, i.e. English-Slovenian, terminology resources. Although the students were told not to use online translation tools, some students in the Business English 3 courses made reference to them. These students nevertheless realized that the online translation tools which they used provided wrong translations and were consequently not as reliable as they had expected. Following the discussion about the students’ responses concerning the translation of terminology into Slovenian and our assumption in H4 that more than half of all students will find it dif ficult to do the required translations into Slovenian, we fully confirm H4 for all groups of students. Even though a vast majority of the students had enormous problems with translating definitions, they were surprisingly quite positive about what they had gained by completing the assignment. Almost all students claimed that this type of activity was good for learning technical vocabulary via reading longer texts and learning how to search for terminology and the definitions in various resources. In short, they believed that their linguistic skills and study skills improved greatly. For that reason, our hypothesis that more than half of all students would consider the task as beneficial despite its dif ficulty (H5) can be confirmed for both Business English 1 and Business English 3 courses.

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5 Conclusions Deriving from the foundations for this assignment and the data collected in this study, the following conclusions can be made. The major strength of this task lies in the fact that it greatly enhances the acquisition of technical terminology through extensive reading and intensive vocabulary search in a bilingual (L2 and L1) context. In addition, the assignment achieved its purpose from the bilingual viewpoint also in the sense that after completing it, the students were more aware of the dif ferences between dif ferent systems within specific fields of economics and business sciences. In general, the analysis of the students’ comments revealed more positive responses than negative ones so we can confirm that our primary goal, that is, business and economics terminology acquisition, was reached. The second goal, that is, the autonomous learning of new terminology in line with the Bologna concept was also achieved because the assignment spanned ten weeks during which the students had to do a lot of independent work. Apart from that, the students became more aware of the quality of information included in a number of resources they had to consult. However, this objective was only partly attained as some students chose wrong translations of terminology from the viewpoint of its contextual use. We believe that one of the key strengths of this assignment was the students’ positive attitude together with a strong pride in their personal achievements, which has led to their increased motivation for further individual reading and study of professional vocabulary. Still, the students’ responses reveal a number of aspects of language teaching which should be incorporated into our language courses. More emphasis should be placed on showing the students how to look for appropriate terminology from a contextual viewpoint in a bilingual context. Further, the students should be given more guidance in terms of translation in order to avoid the pitfalls of word-for-word translation. To sum up, the main advantage of the approach proposed and analysed in this contribution is the active engagement of students in technical terminology acquisition. In a way, they were responsible for their own learning


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and were not mere passive receivers of language input. Of course, we must bear in mind that what facilitated the execution of the assignment in our case was the fact that the field of business and economics terminology and the availability of terminology resources (including English-Slovenian dictionaries and terminology databases) is rather extensive in comparison with other areas of ESP. Therefore, it would be of interest to test the proposed assignment in some other LSP courses and within other L2-L1 frameworks. Furthermore, quite a few issues related to text selection, the selection of technical terminology, the search for and the choice of definitions and various aspects of translation were raised by the students in their comments, which could all serve as the basis for further research.

References Benson, P. (1997). ‘The Philosophy and Politics in Learner Autonomy’. In Benson, P. and Voller, P. (eds), Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning, 18–34. London: Longman. Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning. London: Longman Pearson. Bocanegra-Valle, A. (2008). ‘Learning to Learn in ESP: Fostering Lifelong Learning in European Higher Education under Bologna Requirements’. In Fortanet-Gomez, I. and Räisänen, C.A. (eds), ESP in European Higher Education: Integrating Language and Content 213–32. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fortanet-Gomez, I. and Räisänen, C.A. (eds) (2008). ESP in European Higher Education: Integrating Language and Content. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Hulstijn, J.H., Hollander, M. and Greidanus, T. (1996). ‘Incidental Vocabulary Learning by Advanced Foreign Language Students: The Inf luence of Marginal Glosses, Dictionary Use, and Reoccurrence of Unknown Words’, The Modern Language Journal 80, 327–39 accessed 20 September 2009.

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Hunt, A. and Beglar, D. (2005). ‘A Framework for Developing EFL Reading Vocabulary’, Reading in a Foreign Language, 17, 1–31. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1994). English for Specific Purposes: A Learning-Centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Knight, S. (1994). ‘Dictionary Use While Reading: The Ef fects on Comprehension and Vocabulary Acquisition for Students of Dif ferent Verbal Abilities’, The Modern Language Journal, 78, 285–99, accessed 18 September 2009. Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon Institute of English. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Institute of English. Krashen, S. (1989). ‘We Acquire Vocabulary and Spelling by Reading: Additional Evidence for the Input Hypothesis’, The Modern Language Journal, 73, 440–6, accessed 18 September 2009. Laufer, B. and Hadar, L. (1997). ‘Assessing the Ef fectiveness of Monolingual, Bilingual, and “Bilingualized” Dictionaries in the Comprehension and Production of New Words’, The Modern Language Journal, 81, 189–96. Lessard-Cloustro, M. (2008). ‘Strategies and Success in Technical Vocabulary Learning: Students’ Approaches in One Academic Context’, Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 34(1–2), 31–63, accessed 20 September 2009. Mohseni-Far, M. (2007). ‘Techniques and Strategies Utilized for Vocabulary Acquisition: The Necessity to Design a Multifaceted Framework with an Instructionally Wise Equilibrium’, Porta Linguarum, 8, 137–52, accessed 20 September 2009. Petrylaite, R., Vežyte, T. and Vaškeliene, D. (2008). ‘Changing Skills of Dictionary Use’, Studies about Languages (Kalbų Studijos), 12, 77–82, accessed 15 September 2009. Tumolo, C.H.S. (2007). ‘Vocabulary and Reading: Teaching Procedures in the ESP Classroom’, Linguagem and Ensino, 10(2), 477–50, accessed 30 September 2009.


Are They Children or Adults? The Lack of Impact of the Tenor Contextual Variable in EFL Classroom Materials

1 Introduction This paper intends to stress the importance of context in devising and selecting classroom materials. Having a look at the classroom materials that are being translated – and supposedly adapted – for bilingual schools in Spain shows a lack of real adaptation to the immediate context of communication, i.e. the classroom. Using Halliday’s (2004) identification of language metafunctions as the point of departure, we will present a linguistic analysis of selected classroom materials – prepared both in English and Spanish – in order to compare not only similarities and dif ferences between these languages, but also the overwhelming inf luence of generic specificities of the original field of knowledge upon which textbooks are based, usually either science or history. This will show that even if the classroom circumstances imply a change in the tenor contextual variable, i.e. in the participants involved in the communicative situation, most textbooks are not acknowledging it. The importance of bilingualism has been stressed in recent laws passed, not only in Spain, but also in each of the regions that form part of this country. In Castilla-León this trend towards creating bilingual schools started in 2006 and it has meant both a high monetary and resource investment. Nevertheless, the legal and economic ef forts made towards the implementation of the bilingual programme in Spanish schools have not been

468


accompanied by the creation of new materials in English as a second language. As proved in other studies (Fernández et al. 2005: 170), most of the materials produced in Spain are only translations of textbooks which had been previously written in Spanish. The profusion of translated materials, with virtually no adaptation in terms of language and/or content, has not been welcomed by most teachers, who feel the need to prepare their own materials, or at least adapt textbooks. Therefore, they are left with a strong negative feeling about a lack of material (ibid: 169). In an opinion poll carried out amongst a number of teachers involved in Castilla-León’s bilingualism project, a percentage as high as 90 per cent showed a clear dissatisfaction with the textbooks and materials which were currently available and in use in most bilingual schools. The awareness about this problem, and initial insights into it, were the consequence of discussions held with high school – and primary school – teachers taking part in the Masters on Bilingualism of fered at the University of Valladolid. The outcome of some of these discussions, and the comparison done between extracts taken from these textbooks and native texts found in British teaching websites (Filardo Llamas et al., in press) are the seed from which this research stems. In our view, this approach to bilingualism results from a partial understanding of the term Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). According to William Littlewood (1981: 6), having a communicative competence in the L2 should involve at least four elements: attaining a high degree of linguistic competence; distinguishing between those forms mastered and the communicative function they perform; developing skills for communicating ef fectively in dif ferent types of situations; and becoming aware of the social meaning of language forms. The use of translations from the L1 to the L2 in order to teach in a Content-and-Language-Integrated (CLIL) context does not only result in students’ not understanding the L2 – because the translations have a language level which does not ref lect the real knowledge of the students (Acosta Robles 2007) – but also in neglecting the importance of mastering communicative competence, understood in its broadest conception, not as the mere knowledge of linguistic forms and their (linguistic) function in a text. Thus, two essential aspects of communication are forgotten, as

Are They Children or Adults?

469

the important role of the context in communication is not considered, and socially-determined nuances and subsequent uses of language are, at least apparently, discarded. It seems, therefore, that the intrinsic connection between the contextual function of a linguistic form and the role of a text being determined by the classroom context in which it is embedded is not taken into account in the materials prepared for the bilingual project. In this article, we will ref lect on how these materials could be improved so that their use of the classroom is not only based on achieving linguistic knowledge, but also communicative competence as understood by Littlewood (1981). In order to do this, text will be analysed and compared using Halliday’s (2004) Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as a tool. In this way, the expressed, and desired, relationship between language, function and context will be elicited.

2 Methodology As explained above, this research departs from a particular conception of language which understands it as not only being made up of a linguistic form and an associated communicative function. Following SFL, the role of context is also acknowledged. As shown in Figure 6, context has to be determined by two main aspects which should have an impact in the way that language is used: dif ference between understandings of social context, i.e. the one determining genres such as scientific language, in the L1 and the L2; and dif ference between social contexts and the actual context of situation where the communicative activity (using language in the classroom) takes place. If these two variables are not acknowledged, it is likely that the employed language neither adjusts to nor reproduces social expectations, and that it is not appropriate for the level of knowledge of one of the participants involved in communication: the students.

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Elena González-Cascos Jiménez and Laura Filardo Llamas Form Words (language)

SYSTEMATIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

Function

SOCIAL CONTEXT

Communicative

Classroom

SITUATION CONTEXT

Figure 6 Language and Communication in the Classroom Context

The relationship that is established between language and context can be defined in a double way. On the one hand, we can rely on the dif ferent types of metafunctions (Halliday 2004) which can be performed through language – ideational, interpersonal and textual – and how the combination between them makes us, as communicators, expect a particular type of context where that language is produced. On the other hand, knowing something about the three elements which are used to define the context – field, tenor and mode – and how they can be used to describe a situation can recall particular uses of language. The ideational metafunction refers to the representation of the world spread through language and the speaker’s experience of it. It is contextually related to the field, which is closely connected to the discourse topic and the degree of specialization it is portrayed with (Halliday 2004; Eggins 2004: 58). Uncovering how the world is represented in textbooks, and whether this is related to the expected register, can be done by looking at lexical choices – and in particular subjects, objects and adjuncts as elements in Halliday’s Transitivity system (2004) – and the connections – causal, temporal, etc. – which are established between sentences (Cof fin et al. 2009: 213; Christie 2002: 12). This analysis will give us information about the angle of representation which is adopted, and whether students are involved in it or not; and the degree of specialization used in textbooks, which is frequently ref lected in the use of grammatical metaphors such


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as nominalizations (Halliday 2004). Knowing this is significant, as the combination of objective uses of language from which the students can feel isolated, with a highly specialized language can make it more dif ficult for a text to be processed. The interpersonal metafunction can be defined as that which explains how relationships between interlocutors are established, and on which grounds. This is determined by the tenor contextual variable which is explained in relation to three features: the social roles which are associated to discourse participants, the social status which is attributed to each of them and subsequent social distance (Halliday 2004; Collins 2009: 213–28). Key linguistic elements for identifying the interpersonal metafunction are related to mood choices, i.e. imperative, interrogative or declarative; modality, including not only the use of modal verbs, but also evaluative lexis; and aspects related to person, such as terms of address and subjects pointing at discourse participants or not (Collins 2009: 213–28; Christie 2002: 12). The linguistic analysis of these categories can help us understand not only how the communication process is conceived, but also the role that writers, speakers, teachers or students adopt in that particular communicative situation – either as active or passive participants or as source of authority and information, etc. How the textual metafunction is realized depends on the two other metafunctions (Leckie-Tarrie 1995: 43). The textual metafunction is the one that refers to the way a text is realized, and the role played by language in configuring that particular situation (Halliday 2004). The textual organization of a text is tied to its configuration as a message and therefore involves looking at elements such as theme configuration and cohesion (Christie 2002: 12). In order to uncover cohesive devices, we need to look at elements such as the type of clause structure and its complexity, uses of group modification and the type of lexical density. Besides, elements such as repetitions or mid-sentence corrections can help us know the kind of language being used (Cof fin et al. 2009: 213–28). These elements are important in as much as they point at the degree of interactivity between teacher and students which is promoted through textbooks. The lack of dialogues in the class, and subsequent involvement by the learner, can result in a non-autonomous learner, who is neither necessarily involved nor ref lecting about the issues

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covered in the classroom (Little 1991). Besides, uses of elements typical of the written mode such as group modification and a high lexical density can render the processing and learning process dif ficult, hence, lowering the likelihood of contents being learned. Similarly important is the relationship that is established between text and context, which can be uncovered by looking at the type of references that appear in a text. Whereas anaphoric reference only stresses cohesion between dif ferent textual elements, exophoric references can emphasize that external relationship between a text and its surrounding context (Cof fin et al. 2009: 213–28) – be it the immediate context of situation or elements of a shared contextual reality. Emphasizing the connection between teaching materials and the real world where they are embedded can have the ef fect of a better understanding of the language used – which points at a known reality that has been previously experienced by learners as individuals (Langacker 2008) – and, consequently, of the contents being explained through it. As we will see below, the analysis will attempt to prove how in the analysed text, only two contextual elements are taken into account: the field and the mode, which can be seen in the scientific topics being portrayed and in the written language selected to do so. Nevertheless, the tenor variable is often forgotten as it is not considered as one of the elements of the teaching practice but as one stemming from the scientific tradition in which textbooks are embedded.

3 Corpus The corpus from which the examples in this paper are taken consists of a number of textbooks collected from the information given by the students of the Master’s in Bilingualism taught at the University of Valladolid. They are teachers in Bilingual Schools in Castilla-León and in each school they have dif ferent books for the teaching of dif ferent subjects in English.

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In Table 32 we have summarized the corpus of texts analysed in this research. The abbreviation N stands for native, NN stands for non-native and S stands for Spanish. The texts are numbered so as to indicate that those with the same number deal with the same topic and they have been compared in terms of grammar, lexis, functional and contextual variables. Both Spanish and non-native texts have been extracted from textbooks used in Spanish schools, approved by the national and local governments. Table 32 Corpus of Texts for Analysis CORPUS 1. ‘Cells’, Social and 1. ‘Cells’, Essential N1 Natural Science, 5, NN1 English, 5, Santillana, Oxford Education. Richmond. N2

2. ‘Living things’, BBC LS2-Bitesize.

3. ‘Living things’, N3 BBC Scotland Education.

2. ‘Living things’, NN2 Science, Tirolina 3. SM.

S1

2. ‘Los seres vivos’, Conocimiento del medio, Tirolina 3. SM.

4 Analysis In the analysis of our selected corpus, we will try to explain the characteristics of the language used in native and non-native texts, focusing on the following particular features: formality of language, communicative distance and interactivity, which will be the basis of our conclusions about the dif ferences between native and non-native texts. For this purpose, we have chosen examples and analysed the use of subjects, objects and adjuncts in both languages as well as the lexicon, never forgetting that these texts are addressed to children.

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From a formal point of view, most texts have similar structures: titles, short paragraphs, key words and pictures but the type of language used will show dif ferences. 4.1 Analysis of subjects It is known that the use of subjects in Spanish and English dif fer because Spanish is an inf lected language and the verb gives us the information referred to the subject. On the contrary, in English we always need to use the subject as the verb is not inf lected and, thus, it does not provide that information. The following examples will illustrate what we have said above: 1. Animales. Son seres vivos que pueden desplazarse. No fabrican su alimento. Las hormigas, las ranas, o los tiburones son animales. Las personas también pertenecemos a este grupo (S1) 2. Animals. They are living things that move around. They can’t produce their own food. Ants, frogs and sharks are animals. People are animals, too. (NN2) 3. Living things are made up of tiny units called cells. Cells are the smallest living unit in a living thing. Some living things are made up of a single cell. They are unicellar. Other living things are made up of many cells. They are multicellar. (NN1) 4. All living organisms are formed by cells. They are the basic units of life. Cells are very small, so we need a microscope to see them clearly. Some living things, like bacteria or yeast, have got only one cell. They are unicellar organisms. Other living things, like tree or butterf lies, have got more than one cell. They are multicellar organisms. (N1) In example 1 we can see that there is no use of personal pronoun, whereas in 2 and 3, which are non-native texts, the use of these pronouns is compulsory. However, there is a significant dif ference with example 4 which is the native text, where through the use of the pronoun we, the students are portrayed as part of the communicative, learning and scientific process.


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4.1.1 Social participants and modality 5. Animals. They are living things that move around. They can’t produce their own food. Ants, frogs and sharks are animals. People are animals, too. (NN2) 6. Plants. They are living things that can’t move around (NN1) In the previous examples the social participants are not involved in the modal uses. This means that children do not interact in the communicative process, making it more dif ficult for both language and content to be learnt. Whereas in example 5, the social participants are involved in modal uses, that is, children interact in the communicative process. This is significant not only in the promotion of autonomous learning, but also in the way that the L2 is acquired, as meaningful interaction in the target language increases the ability to learn it (Krashen 1988). 7. You can avoid spreading harmful microorganisms by: washing your hands before eating, after preparing food and after using the toilet; covering your mouth when you cough or sneeze (N1) 4.2 Analysis of objects and adjuncts In the three examples that follow, the uses of objects and adjuncts are almost identical. We are again facing a translation from Spanish into English where calques abound. These show how context and its relation with natural language are not taken into account. Eventually we obtain examples of unreal language which portray an unreal world which is distant from the child’s known reality: 8. Animales. Son seres vivos que pueden desplazarse. No fabrican su alimento. Las hormigas, las ranas, o los tiburones son animales. Las personas también pertenecemos a este grupo. (S1)

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9. Animals. They are living things that move around. They can’t produce their own food. Ants, frogs and sharks are animals. People are animals, too. (NN2) 10. Living things are made up of tiny units called cells. Cells are the smallest living unit in a living thing. Some living things are made up of a single cell. They are unicellar. Other living things are made up of many cells. They are multicellar. (NN1) In example 11, on the contrary, the adjuncts and complements provide real language – exemplified through the use of adjuncts and appositions, which point at the real world where children are located, hence making interaction possible: 11. All living organisms are formed by cells. They are the basic units of life. Cells are very small, so we need a microscope to see them clearly. Some living things, like bacteria or yeast, have got only one cell. They are unicellar organisms. Other living things, like tree or butterf lies, have got more than one cell. They are multicellar organisms. (N1) 4.3 The lexicon When we come to analysing vocabulary, in all the analysed extracts we can find examples of highly specialized vocabulary. In the translated texts, the uses of words can be seen in examples 12 and 13. The words used are similar to the ones appearing in example 14. The dif ference lies in the common use of appositions and explanations in the native texts, which frequently rely on real word entities such as ‘butterf lies’ or ‘bacteria’. These entities appear as supporting elements in the definitions provided, hence making unknown words easier to understand and to process. The abundance of explanatory illustrations in non-native texts, and the references which are made to them in the accompanying texts, also have a significant bearing on this. 12. Fungi, mushrooms, mould, microorganisms, microscope, microbes (NN1)


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13. cells, unicellar, multicellar, skin cells, bone cells, membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, hard cell wall, stem (NN2) 14. cells, unicellar, multicellar, yeast, membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles, chloroplasts. (N1) The old conception that lexicon and semantics are opposed to grammar and that they occupy a peripheral place, is no longer maintained because the grammar is designed, among other things, in a much broader sense, as a set of subsystems that interact (Lahuerta, Pujol 1996). In this view, the lexicon is an integrated component of grammar that interacts with other components. This is a consequence of the advent of pragmatics, established as the theory which explains the interpretation of linguistic meanings in relation to another, contextual, dimension, hence being studied as part of the communicative interaction. As mentioned before, the analysed native texts provide explanations of new and specialized vocabulary using appositions, examples of the real world and also explanatory illustrations. This does not happen in the non-native texts, thus rendering the process of the vocabulary acquisition dif ficult. As a consequence, children have to be helped by the teacher either by translating the words into their mother tongue or by giving them an explanation of the unknown word. In any case, this prevents the linguistic interaction of children, which is, in this way, removed from the communication process, where they are involved only as passive recipients. 4.4 The written mode When we come to analysing the written mode, we discover that in the non-native texts, or translations, there is a syntactic oversimplification. We can only find simple declarative sentences, with no subordination or coordination combined only with anaphoric references. This neither ref lects natural nor authentic language.

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15. They are living things that move around. They can’t produce their own food. Ants, frogs and sharks are animals. People are animals, too. (NN2) On the contrary, when we look at the native texts, we can find both subordination and coordination, mixed with anaphoric and exophoric references. 16. Cells are very small, so we need a microscope to see them clearly. Cells are living things because they perform the basic life processes of interaction, nutrition and reproduction. (N1)

5 Conclusions Having followed the methodology explained above, our analysis reveals that in all the textbooks students will find scientific language. However, in the non-native texts neither the classroom context nor the age of children, or their language knowledge, are taken into account. The analysis shows that when facing non-native texts, the student encounters syntactic and cultural calques which are transferred from Spanish into English. This shows a clear focus of translated books on content rather than on the natural acquisition of the L2 which is ideally envisaged in the Bilingual project. Thus, without the aim of rejecting translated material, we believe that translations should not have been focused on transferring content. On the contrary, they should have attempted to translate all the dif ferent kinds of meaning, mainly bearing in mind that texts are ‘[…] configurations of multidimensional meanings, rather than containers of content’ (Steiner, Yallop 2001: 3). Linguistic awareness becomes, in this way, a required element in teacher training, as in order to identify the dif ferent meanings that are transmitted through language, they need to work with grammar, or rather,


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lexico-grammar. We cannot forget that the latter is selected according to the purpose a text is being used for (Halliday 2004: 23). Hence, if we want language to be learnt in CLIL context by means of language used in communicative or discursive practices, we need to be aware of how this is used in real practices, which shall not only be determined by L1-based genre and register expectations, but also by the way in which these can be adapted in an L2 classroom context.

References Acosta Robles, P. (2007). ‘Materiales Curriculares Bilingües para la enseñanza de Ciencias de la Naturaleza’, Recursos TIC para la Enseñanza de Ciencias Naturales en Secundaria. Available at accessed 15 February 2011. Christie, F. (2005). Classroom Discourse Analysis. London: Continuum. Cof fin, C., Donohue, J. and North, S. (2009). Exploring English Grammar. From Formal to Functional. London: Routledge. Fernández-Fernández, R., Díaz, C.P., García Gómez, A. and Halbach, A. (2005). ‘La Implantación de Proyectos Educativos Bilingües en la Comunidad de Madrid: Las Expectativas del Profesorado antes de Iniciar el Proyecto’, Portalinguarum, 3,161–73. Filardo-Llamas, L., Riesco-Canduela, L. and González-Cascos-Jiménez, E. (forthcoming). ‘On The validity of Systemic Functional Approaches as a Tool for Selecting Materials in CLIL Contexts. A Case Study’, Portalinguarum, 16 (in press). Halliday, M.A.K. (2004). An introduction to Functional Grammar. Ed. Christian Matthiesen. London: Hodder. Krashen, S. (1988). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. London: Prentice-Hall International. Lahuerta Galán, J. and Pujol Vila, M. (1996). ‘El Lexicón Mental y la Enseñanza del Cocabulario’. In Segoviano, C. (compil.), La Enseñanza del Léxico Español Como Lengua Extranjera, 117–29. Madrid: Iberoamericana. Langacker, R.W. (2008). Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Leckie-Tarrie, H. and Birch, D. (eds) (1995). Language and Context: A Functional Linguistic Theory of Register. London: Pinter. Little, D. (1991). Learner Autonomy 1: Definitions, Issues and Problems. Dublin: Authentik. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Steiner, E. and Yallop, C. (eds) (2001). Exploring Translation and Multilingual Text Production: Beyond Content. The Hague: Mouton.

Jennifer Hatte

Technology, Tradition and Flexibility in the Teaching of Second Year ab initio French to Distance University Students in the Australian Context

1 Introduction It is well known that the communication revolution has had a profound ef fect on universities worldwide. As was pointed out in the Handbook of Distance Education as long ago as 2003: For educational institutions built around face-to-face classroom instruction, the advent of online learning presents a crisis situation, in the classic sense of being both an opportunity and a threat. These institutions have before them the opportunity to use this new mode of instruction to improve the instruction of fered to on-campus students and to reach out to other learners who are not able or willing to enrol in face-to-face, on-campus programs. The threat is at least twofold: that other providers will serve these potential of f-campus students and begin to attract the students who currently attend on campus […] and that a move to embrace online learning will seriously compromise the academic values held by the institution […] distance education, for conventional institutions of higher education, is what Harvard business professor Clayton M. Christensen (1997) refers to as a ‘disruptive technology’ – that is, a new technology that requires an organisation to do things in a fundamentally dif ferent way. This contrasts with what Christensen (1997) refers to as a ‘sustaining technology’; a new technology that represents simply an improvement on current practices. (Anderson, Archer, Garrison 2003: 123)

As we shall see, the situation in the University of New England, Australia (UNE) is rather dif ferent from that of most tertiary institutions. For French, as for all UNE subjects, the advent of online learning has been, and continues to be, a ‘sustaining’ technology. However, if care is not taken, it

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has also the potential (along with other relatively recent changes common to many universities) to disrupt successful and established practices rather than enhance them. For over five decades, UNE has taught a large cohort of external students – the majority of whom are living hundreds or, in some cases, thousands of kilometres from the University. French language and literature have always figured among the subjects taught externally, and French has remained by far the most popular of the modern languages among students. Over the years, the process of teaching by distance education has been honed both at institutional and departmental (now ‘discipline’) level. The University, including the French discipline, has enthusiastically embraced new technologies as they have emerged. As almost everywhere, the language disciplines have grasped the opportunities for enhanced communicative teaching af forded by the Internet in its ever-diversifying manifestations. However, the challenge for those at what used to be called the ‘chalkface’ has been, and remains, that of embracing the new while retaining the best of the old, and remaining competitive because, as Ormond Simpson puts it: Open and distance learning (ODL) is more than 150 years old and dates back perhaps to the early days of one social revolution – the ‘Penny Post’ (the ability to send a letter anywhere in the UK at a standard rate of one old penny) with Isaac Pitman’s correspondence courses in shorthand. Some people claim St Paul’s Epistles as the first open and distance learning package consisting of both correspondence and a face-to-face-element. Now, many revolutions later, but particularly the information technology (IT) revolution, there is an explosive growth of open and distance learning worldwide. (2002: 1)

In some ways, this paper is, so to speak, about babies and bathwater. It tells the story of distance (or external) teaching of French from one place over a long period and looks at the means used by French staf f to try to save a (now rather ageing) baby called the New England Model from accidentally being thrown away; indeed, to look at some of the strategies use to foster its future growth using the exciting technologies now available, as well as more traditional ones.

Technology, Tradition and Flexibility in the Teaching of Second Year French

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We shall put distance education and the teaching of French at the University of New England, Australia into its geographical, recent demographic and historical contexts, not forgetting the very important context of the student cohort that UNE actually serves. We shall identify some challenges and describe some current solutions as well as pressures, many of which, of course, are far from limited to one discipline at one university. There are also other, slightly older challenges in tertiary language teaching, which will be discussed.

2 Geographical and Demographic Context Despite the relative proximity of New Caledonia in the Pacific, Australia is a very long way from any of the larger French-speaking countries. Nevertheless, in spite of Federal Government-led encouragement of the teaching of Asian languages in schools, French remains, at the University of New England and other Australian universities, the most popular foreign language of fered. Australia is also a country of vast distances in itself. Much of Europe could easily be fitted in its place. The country has three time zones (four in summer, since Queensland has no Daylight Saving Time). Some twentytwo and a half million people currently live on this large land mass, most of them clinging to the urbanized coastal areas, particularly in the east, with some 11 per cent in rural areas including regional towns and cities. This means, of course, that about two and a half million live to some degree ‘in the bush’. The Australia of today is a cosmopolitan country – a far cry from the country of the ‘White Australia Policy’, which was in force from 1901 until 1973. Now, at least 8 per cent of the population is not of European descent. 21.5 per cent of the population do not have English as their first language, as can be seen from the recent statistics below:

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Australia: Demographic Profile compiled 2010 Population: 22,515,700 ( July 2010 est.) Urban population: 89 per cent of total population (2008) Ethnic groups: White 92 per cent; Asian 7 per cent; Aboriginal and other 1 per cent Languages: English 78.5 per cent; Chinese 2.5 per cent; Italian 1.6 per cent; Greek 1.3 per cent; Arabic 1 per cent; Vietnamese 1 per cent; other 8.2 per cent; unspecified 5.7 per cent (2006 Census) (CIA Handbook) Though French is part of the ‘other’ and ‘unspecified’ categories, there are many native French speakers from a variety of countries permanently resident in Australia. Armidale is situated inland in the most heavily populated state, NSW, between Sydney and Brisbane (Queensland), on the part of the Great Dividing Range known as the Northern Tablelands, or ‘New England’.

3 Historical Context In the first half of the twentieth century it was realized that without moving to a large city, often a distance of some hundreds of kilometres, regional Australians had little or no opportunity for tertiary study. In 1938, what was to become the University of New England opened as the University of Sydney. The site was a large colonial house named Boolaminbah donated by the White family. European Languages were among the foundation subjects taught: Foundation Staf f of the New England University College FACULTIES OF ARTS AND ECONOMICS From 1938: Classics and English: F.J. Letters, M.A., LLB. (Syd.). French and German: R.G. Crossley, B.A. (West Aust.), PhD (Freiburg. i.B.) From 1939: French: Isabel M. Blanche, B.A. (Syd.). (Diplôme d’Etudes Universitaires, Paris) German: Mr S. Musgrave B.A. (Oxon.) Classics and French — Drummond, cited in Franklin 1988


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In 1954 the College acquired university status, becoming the University of New England – the first Australian university situated outside a major population centre. An essential part of its brief from the Government was to teach its subjects, including languages, by distance, through the Department of External Studies (an administrative and facilitating department, which was not responsible for academic programmes or methodology). Albert Bussell documents the University’s beginnings in distance education: Towards the end of 1953 […] a scheme was worked out whereby […] the newly independent […] University of New England would also develop an external studies department through which it would of fer courses by correspondence to students unable to attend lectures. […] Fortunately it was realized that that teaching by correspondence would present a heavy teaching load, and quite a number of new appointments were made so that departments that would be involved in external teaching would be equipped to do it. (Bussell: 67–8)

French has been taught by distance continuously at UNE since that year. Thus began what was to be called the ‘New England Model’ of external studies. Particularly enlightened were the realization of high workload implications and the will to provide adequate staf f. Kevin Smith was for many years director of the Department of External Studies. He writes: The New England Model [was] a philosophy that sought to ensure that the university experience for an external student would include the essential ingredients that characterized the ideal (if not always the actual) experience of the full-time internal student. This was to manifest itself in academic and administrative strategies that would ensure parity of standards, the provision of learning resources such as study guides, library books and other reference material, access to staf f for academic guidance, personal counseling and moral support, opportunities for interaction with other students and, most importantly, first-hand experience of attending the University and identifying with it. (Smith: 210)

As can be seen from the above, at the heart of this model was (and remains) a commitment to of fer the same undergraduate courses both to on-campus students (internals) and to distance students (externals); taught by the same staf f, with as far as possible the same resources, of fering mentoring and support and, for externals, as much on-campus experience as possible through the provision of residential schools in Armidale.

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The New England model of distance education became internationally known. A UNESCO publication from 1991 speaks of: What is often called the New England Model of Distance Education, after the system which was established in the mid-1950’s at the University of New England. It was an exemplar model for international tertiary distance education developments prior to the open universities which f lourished from the 1970’s onwards. In Australia it was the model that all universities and colleges, established from the 1960s onwards, followed. […] The essential characteristic of the New England Model is that the institution is dual mode with on-campus and of f-campus students. The on-campus curriculum is the same as for of f-campus students. Equivalence between the two modes was thus ensured at a time when the concept of distance education was still being questioned. The implications of this are wide ranging because the dual mode system has the same curriculum for internal and external students, the same teachers; the same examinations and the same opportunity for interaction. But it must be acknowledged that counselling by on-campus staf f is done by phone and face-to-face tutoring, during [compulsory] residential schools for external students. There may be on-campus residential schools, usually four days per subject […], and weekend schools in capital cities such as Sydney. […] The use of audio tapes, particularly for foreign language teaching, started at the University of New England in the 1960’s and was further developed in the 1970s. (Arger: 4–5)

The fact of teaching the same courses was and remains important for both internal and external students, since, it means that students can and do switch easily between modes, some students resident in Armidale even enrolling simultaneously in a mixture of internal and external units (UNE undergraduate degrees are modular). Teaching by the same staf f ensured from the beginning that external students received a similar amount of exposure to experienced scholars as did internals; especially with the introduction of audio-tapes and later CDs, on which lectures were sent out, and, in the case of languages, on which oral assignments were received and comments returned. After a visit to UNE, the UK Open University Planning Committee reported the New England Model as being particularly successful: It is known from experience both at home and abroad, but notably from the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, that adult students, whose attitudes, habits and motivation dif fer from those of immediate school-leavers, can


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and do succeed in obtaining university degrees largely by correspondence tuition. There is good reason to suppose that such students will succeed in the Open University […]. (Bell, Fowler, Little: 231)

UNE French developed its own way of teaching according to the New England model. It remained progressive in its use of technology and basically stable until the early 2000s. These are some of the characteristics of the department (later ‘division’, now ‘discipline’) of French up to the late 1990s and into the early 2000s: • Between six and seven full-time and two half-time academic staf f and one administrative assistant (later, one AA shared by the three European Languages). • Student body: ab initio, post-matriculation and mature-age students who could demonstrate suitability for university study; a number of native or background French speakers, mainly among external students. • Post-matriculation (or native speaker) students and ab initio students taught in two dif ferent, eventually merging, streams (ab initio students taking four years for a French major; other students, three). • All undergraduate core units in the language year-long and of fered both externally and internally, full or part-time, with identical coursework (apart from oral assignments) and exams (taken by externals at UNE examination centres around the world). • French and Francophone literature included in all language units and the focus of most elective units. • Translation an important part (but by no means the whole) of postmatriculation stream core units. • Strong commitment by all staf f to the care and support of individual students – both internal and external. • The same teaching staf f to design, coordinate and teach both internal and external classes. Marking generally shared with more junior staf f. • Printed teaching materials for all students. Taped lectures in French for external students (particularly in literature) recorded by academic staf f in UNE’s Audio-visual unit.

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• Oral work conducted with externals via cassette tapes (using dual tape-decks and blank tapes, the student’s work can be recorded and corrections dubbed in). • For external students: in September, i.e. close to the end of the southern hemisphere academic year, up to week long, compulsory, annual, residential schools on campus for core units, including conversation classes and oral tests. Internal students also welcome to attend. • Optional weekend schools held annually in April in Sydney for core language units.

4 The Current Situation Like many other institutions in recent years, UNE has had to come to grips not only with the rapid advance of technology, but also with changes inf luencing the student demographic, such as the rise in the number of women in full-time work and the great reduction in the number of school leavers who have matriculated in French (or any language); also with changes at government and institutional level, such as reduced government funding in real terms, a market driven business-style model of university management becoming more and more the norm, increased standardization of processes and terminology across dif ferent institutions and a governmentdriven increase in competition between them. Permanent academic staf f numbers are lower in all the languages, and general staf f no longer work wholly for or within academic disciplines. At UNE, the consequences of some of the above changes in the last few years include the following: • All UNE units must have online component in Blackboard (changing to Moodle in July 2011). • Academic staf f design and monitor websites with IT support provided centrally and at Faculty level, but less at school level.


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• UNE-produced teaching materials (as opposed to textbooks) must be provided only online for first year units. • All undergraduate units at UNE are now semesterized, with trimesters and/or summer semesters in some other disciplines. Trimesters will gradually become the norm from 2012. In the particular case of French: • In all modern languages, ab initio, post-matriculation and mature students who can demonstrate suitability for university study are now taught in one stream with a second entry point in second year for those who have a good pass in the NSW French Continuers Higher School Certificate (matriculation) or equivalent, or are native (sometimes background) speakers. • One optional, residential school, for second semester core language units. No weekend schools. • Casual academic staf f are now more frequently employed, af fecting both external and internal UNE cohorts equally. Across UNE, student numbers have remained strong, but with an increase in the ratio of external to internal students. In 2009 there were 18,394 enrolled students, 80.7 per cemt of whom were externals.1 In the case of French, as in that of other subject areas, approximately 80 per cent of enrolments are of f campus, from beginners to doctoral students. These student numbers in French are now supplemented in core units by students from James Cook University in Queensland (first year) who enrol and are tutored at their own universities, but who study UNE programmes through online and print materials. These units are coordinated by the UNE French staf f concerned. Of course, the ratio of external to internal students is only part of the student demographic. In 2009, approximately 45 per cent of UNE external

1

All 2009 UNE statistics are taken from: accessed 2 December 2011.

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students lived in large metropolitan coastal cities (22.24 per cent in Sydney), 4.8 per cent overseas and the rest in regional Australia, including 11.05 per cent in Armidale (3.45 per cent) and other parts of Northern NSW. More than 25.5 per cent of external students resident in Australia lived in states or territories outside NSW. In 2009 again, 65.7 per cent of external students were female, and though figures are not available, the percentage of female external students in French would have been much higher, as is often the case with languages. So far as age is concerned, in 2009, 66.6 per cent of UNE external students were 35 years old or over, compared with 13.73 per cent of internals. In contrast, 33.4 per cent of externals were aged between eighteen and twenty-nine, compared with 87.6 per cent of internals. Enrolments in core second year French units in 2009 and 2010 (separate academic years) average 60.5 per semester. Although UNE statistics do not go into details about students’ personal circumstances, the following examples (in no particular order), compiled from French staf f ’s knowledge of their students over the last few years, will give some idea of the wide variety within the external student body: • an Australian ballerina working in Europe • a French speaking African serving a prison sentence in NSW (forbidden Internet access) • several mothers of young children : single/partnered • French nationals, some with French tertiary qualifications (studying to gain formal qualifications to teach French in Australia) • native French speakers (some of non-standard French) with few formal qualifications • Australian residents and citizens with European or Asian back grounds • ‘internal’ students with timetable clashes • police • active service personnel liable suddenly to be deployed to regions with no Internet access • people with private incomes • people from remote bush areas (some with irregular Internet access) • struggling workers


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a member of the Australian anti-terrorist squad several lawyers several doctors a retired UNE academic the Dean of a faculty at another university teachers wishing to upgrade or diversify their skills other professionals and retirees people from all walks of life with varying types and degrees of dis ability

Unlike others, particularly in vocational or scientific disciplines, external students of French do not always study the language for professional reasons; many, perhaps the majority, study out of interest in the language, literature or culture. Among them are those who are very comfortable online and others who are wary, even fearful, of computers, or some with poor Internet access (or none, as can be seen above). Reasons for poor Internet access are not always obvious. Even in homes where a modern computer and continuous, high-speed access is technically available, it is not always continuously available to the student. One mother, in 2010 for instance, wrote apologetically when asking for an extension on an assignment, that she had to compete with her husband and her several school-age children for access to the one computer, since it was also needed for his job and their homework.

5 UNE Second Year French by Distance Today Distance teaching of languages is greatly enhanced by online teaching, but it is essential that pedagogical imperatives, which, of course, include knowledge of the particular student cohort, must drive the choice of tools used and not the other way around.

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UNE French academic staf f have been and are keen both to embrace what the new technologies have to of fer and to preserve the spirit of the new England Model, with its strong commitment to care and support of all students, both internal and external, and which has served large numbers of students well for so long. For this reason, in the second year core units, FREN201 and 202 (first and second semesters respectively), a method has been chosen which allows students to work completely online (except for the written examinations, which are still taken at UNE’s examination centres across the world), or to do the minimum online: online training exercises and a final aural test. These latter, of course, encourage the student to ‘bite the bullet’. However, there is enough that is not compulsorily online for assessment easily adapted for students, such as the prisoner mentioned above. The unit information and assessment details by the UNE staf f are currently sent out in hard copy and also placed on the FREN201 and 202 Blackboard website. The second year units are also based on the idea that it is important that the time-starved academic realize that it is unnecessary to reinvent the wheel, and that there is high quality material ‘out there’ which can only be put together by those with more time and resources that the average university language lecturer. For this reason, FREN201 and 202 are centred around an excellent commercial intermediate French Course: in 2009 and 2010, St Onge and R. St Onge, Interactio: Révision de grammaire française, 7th Edition (Heinle 2007), with its accompanying workbook, CDs and DVD, which allow those students who wish to to complete the majority of their study of f line. In 2011 this changed to St Onge and R. St Onge, Interaction: Langue et culture, 8th Edition (Boston: Heinle 2011). Every part of the course (both editions) is reproduced on a Cengage-Heinle website, including: an e-book version of the textbook; textbook and workbook interactive exercises in the four skills, including oral/aural ‘language laboratory-style’ exercises, which allow students to listen to various stimuli (questions, sentences to rearrange) and record and review their responses; downloadable podcasts which reinforce material covered in the chapters; a serialized video in French, with subtitles also in French, which extends aural skills and cultural knowledge; and an extension section with various extra exercises and a diagnostic tool to allow students, at the end of each chapter, to pick up on and revise structures they have not fully grasped.


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The Interaction website is linked to the UNE FREN201–202 website, and accessed by students through a ‘gate’ icon which keeps it separate from the other materials in the virtual learning environment. Students (both internal and external) must self-enrol in their class on the Interaction site, and complete the self-correcting workbook exercises set as ‘Training’. Up to 5 per cent of the final mark may be achieved for completion of these exercises (rather than for correct answers), which students may attempt as many times as they like. Students cannot fail the unit simply by failing to do these exercises, which is the case with all the other assessment tasks. However, the 5 per cent is an inducement for the computer shy to venture online (and for internal students to go the extra mile). The FREN201–202 Blackboard home page, contains a message board for notices (in French) from staf f, and various important documents and links to information (for instance to details of exchange programmes). The main ‘Blackboard’ part of the website, however, is accessed through another gate. Once through this gate, the student finds several subsections. The philosophy behind this part of the site is that dif ferent students need to extend their own learning in dif ferent ways at dif ferent times. For this reason, a multiplicity of resources is provided, which, apart from the Evaluations (quiz) section, used for the aural test, allows students to use what they will, when they will. Much of the material beyond the Blackboard gate is also based on the recognition that one person does not have the time or facilities to do as much, as well as the combination of professional language educators making material available on the Net which can be linked to the second year website without infringing copyright. However, these must always be screened for errors and suitability of content. Hence, there is a ‘Liens extérieurs’ section, which is divided into two subsections. The Langue section contains many links to sites, including university and French-based FLE sites, which fit the chapters covered and are released to students as appropriate. The Culture section of Liens extérieurs is also tailored to the Interaction chapters covered, and is a place where a virtual France and Francophonie, with all their humanity, humour and emotion, can be laid at the students’ feet. For instance, French YouTube can be a source of delight. Three of the links provided include a ‘Candid Camera’ episode where an orchestra of ticket inspectors boards a suburban

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bus, and an online advertisement for a computer class in which computer terminology (fichier, bureau, lancer, fenêtre, etc.) is misunderstood by the computer-illiterate hero, who understands only the original meaning of each term. On a more serious note is a poem by Rimbaud which is included in an Interaction chapter and beautifully read online by a French actor. France and the French-speaking world can also be brought to the students through links to French radio and television ‘streaming’ websites. These are found in a separate section, which also includes pronunciation exercises from basic to advanced and explanations of such things as the rules of liaison and nasalization. The Communiquons section includes a ‘chat room’ (less used now than five years ago) and the online heart of all UNE units, the discussion boards, where students are encouraged to ask questions and talk to each other. In these core language units, the discussions are extremely popular, often attracting well over three hundred messages (many of which, of course, are lecturer responses). A more recent addition to Communiquons is real-time, personal computer-based video-conferencing, conducted twice weekly in 2010 via i-Vocalize software as optional conversation classes, by a native-speaking casual member of staf f. These are growing in popularity, but problems of access are inevitable with the various time zones and lifestyles of external students. A-synchronous audio communication is a possibility to be investigated. Formal learning and assessment are at the heart of all UNE units. Written assignments may be submitted online in pdf format or posted on the same date. French staf f have opted to have them printed and post them back. This allows for more personalized marginal scrawls and comments by markers not possible in Microsoft Word ‘tracking’. Arguments for and against the value of the inclusion of translation in language courses have surfaced again and again over the past decades. Here is not the place to enter into lengthy discussion on the subject. Suf fice to say that the philosophy of French at New England on the subject of translation coincides, at least in part, with that of Anne D. Cordero, who wrote in 1984:


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During the last three decades translation has been a controversial element in the teaching of foreign languages. It is still associated with the learning and testing process of the grammar-translation approach. […] direct-method followers banned translation as a learning device from the classroom. The argument […] is that translation interposes an intermediate process between the concept and the way it is expressed in the foreign idiom, thus impeding the student’s ability to think directly in the foreign language. It may be argued that even when students are taught by direct methods, they usually interpose this immediate step themselves, especially older students. It should be noted that I see translation […] as a skills course among diversified options. When properly developed and taught, it can maintain and strengthen its own vital role, while contributing to the development of other skills and consequently to a higher overall competence. Translation is thus conceived as an end desired in itself and as a method of furthering proficiency in the foreign language. (350–1)

A translation component forms part of the second semester unit, FREN202, which also covers four out of the ten Interaction chapters. It is found in the students’ UNE teaching materials, and includes practice translations, notes and suggested translations for students to work through. More translations are added online over the semester, including those covered in class. From 2011 there will be a translation ‘wiki’ on which students can work together. Such informal interaction online and in the optional schools seems preferable to forcing students into groups, across time-zones and lifestyles, which may add to the stress already experienced by people fitting their studies into already busy lives. Distance education must provide f lexibility for the student, which means of fering choices with which as many students as possible can feel comfortable. Supporting students means being available by telephone (including voicemail) and email, as well as on the discussion board. However, this is not only essential, but also extremely time-consuming. It is possible for academic staf f to be swamped. This is one of the several important reasons why teaching by distance requires more, not fewer, resources than traditional face-to-face teaching; particularly academic staf f and on-the ground support staf f. The teaching of literature as an essential part of university language studies has also seen a decline. Yet, as Debra Popkin says:

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Jennifer Hatte Introducing literature early in the curriculum of fers many benefits: classes will be more exciting since professors will be teaching the literature that they love; students will probably catch some of the enthusiasm and may choose to take literature electives […]. By giving students a taste of some of our favourite works of literature, we may stimulate an interest in language study that will lead them to opt for literature electives and even decide to minor or major in French. (1997: 22)

This has certainly been borne out by the UNE French experience, with both with distance and on campus students. Annedith Schneider points out that: […] the unique richness of literature, that of language, […] also happens to be an important place for students to test their own critical abilities and an opportunity to engage with a text emotionally and aesthetically. And it is this individual engagement with a text […] that will create genuine readers, and not just students dutifully completing an assigned task. (2007: 136)

Accordingly, as well as the core units FREN201 and FREN202, UNE French also of fers in mixed mode at second year level, two intermediate ‘language through literature’ elective units and, completely by distance, an elective pronunciation and phonetics unit.

6 Conclusion The Internet is an exciting tool, the potential of which seems limitless; but the people who study by distance through our universities are diverse and with varying needs. What must be the priority of every educational decision is the best way(s) to educate each student within the student’s environment. The university administrator should therefore be open to all the possibilities. In order to work well, retain and educate students and avoid staf f burn-out, distance teaching in universities needs not just excellent IT infrastructure and centralized IT personnel, it needs increased numbers


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of committed, permanent academic staf f, general staf f and on-the-ground IT staf f. It should never be seen as a fashionable yet cheaper option which will increase student numbers, but as an opportunity to serve the wider community by committing extra resources, including extra staf f, to the provision of first-rate university education.

References Anderson, T., Archer, W. and Garrison, D.R. (2003). ‘A Theoretical Framework for Enquiry in a Text-based, Computer-mediated Environment’. In Anderson, W.G. and Moore, M.G. (eds), Handbook of Distance Education, 113–27. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Arger, G. (1991). ‘Australia’. In Arger, G. et al. (eds), Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific: Country Papers, Vol. 1, Australia – Republic of Korea, 1–11. UNESCO. Bussell, A. (1988). ‘Turning Back the Pages’. In Margaret Ann Franklin (ed.), The New England Experience; Inside Stories of U.N.E. 1938–1988, 67–8. Armidale: UNE Alumni Association. CIA Handbook (2010). Cordero, A.D. (1984). ‘The Role of Translation in Second Language Acquisition’, The French Review, 57(3), 350–5. Franklin, M.A. (ed.) (1988). The New England Experience; Inside Stories of UNE 1938–1988. Armidale: UNE Alumni Association. Popkin, D. (1997). ‘Teaching Language Through Literature at the Early Stages: An NEH Model for Proficiency in French’, The French Review, 71(1), 22–32. ‘Report of the Open University Planning Committee’ (1973). In Bell, R.E., Fowler, G. and Little, K. (eds), Education in Great Britain and Ireland: a Source Book (Open University set book). London : Routledge and Kegan Paul : Open University Press, accessed 28 November 2010.

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Schneider, A. (2007). ‘Turning Linguistic Weakness into Critical Strength: Reading Literature as a Foreign Language’, Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association, 40(1), 133–42. Simpson, O. (2002). Supporting Students in Online, Open and Distance Learning. Second Edition. London: Kogan Press. Smith, K. (2007). ‘External Insights’. In Franklin, op. cit., 210–20. St Onge, S. and St Onge, R. (2007). Interaction: Révision de Grammaire Française. Seventh Edition. Boston: Heinle. St Onge, S. and St Onge, R. (2011). Interaction: Langue et Culture. Eighth Edition. Boston: Heinle. UNE Corporate Intelligence Unit: accessed 1 December 2010.

Éamon Ó Cofaigh

Learning French through Irish: The Impact of Bilingualism on the Acquisition of French as an L3

This paper explores linguistic progression of third level learners of French as an L3 through the medium of an L2. Over 10 per cent of all students of French studying Arts in NUI, Galway study French language through the medium of Irish throughout their entire undergraduate career. This involves all aspects of the language course from oral expression, through grammar lectures, right through to translation both from and into French. They have the same teacher throughout the three years and their class group remains largely unchanged until they finish their degree. The advantages and disadvantages of bilingualism have been widely discussed, with research showing both the positive and negative impact of bilingualism on language acquisition.1 This study will examine the academic results of bilingual students who are learning an L3 (French) and compare them to those of mainstream students. The results show that bilingual students’ academic results are stronger and that their linguistic progression in the L3 is more consistent when compared with their mainstream counterparts. In this paper, I will consider a number of issues relating to teaching French through Irish. I will firstly brief ly explain how Fraincis trí Ghaeilge is taught in comparison with mainstream French. I will then examine the course’s advantages and disadvantages as perceived by the students themselves and also as perceived by the teachers. I will critically analyse the results obtained by students through Irish in comparison with those of their peers who are taught through English. To this end, I will compare and contrast results obtained by students in all three years over an eight year period and trace progression among both groups. 1

See Keshavarz and Astaneh (2004).

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Much of the research carried out for this paper is based on an internal report issued by Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge for NUI Galway in 2005 which examined the advantages and disadvantages of the learning of a university subject through the medium of Irish as seen from both the students’ point of view as well as that of the teachers. Written student feedback from the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge class will be examined. Examination results from the past eight years will also be compiled in order to place arguments within a statistical context. Finally, the theory of language acquisition, specifically acquisition of a third language, will be used to underpin my argument with regard to the learning of French through the medium of Irish.

1 Which Students Decide to Take Fraincis trí Ghaeilge? Several subjects are taught through the medium of Irish in NUI Galway. The Irish language plays a central role in the university’s strategic plan for the future and, as such, the university is committed to the provision of education through Irish and to the development of a bilingual campus. Among subjects taught through Irish are mathematics, history, geography, economics and French. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge is taught in NUI Galway to Arts students; it is an option of fered to students in first year which continues in the second and final years. It has the same curriculum as mainstream French; as such it plays a very similar role to that played by ‘Gaelscoileanna’ in the primary and secondary education system in Ireland. The types of students who decide to study Fraincis trí Ghaeilge can generally be divided into three categories. The first, most obviously, constitutes the group made up of native speakers of the Irish language. As Galway is situated on the periphery of the Connemara Gaeltacht, it attracts a large number of native Irish speakers. These students will, for the most part, have had their schooling through the medium of Irish, hence the decision to choose Fraincis trí Ghaeilge seems like a logical one. This is equally true for

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the second group of students as this group incorporates students who have carried out some part of their pre-tertiary schooling through the medium of Irish, having attended a Gaelscoil at either primary or secondary level or both. The aforementioned study published in 2005 found that 70 per cent of students who decided to study a subject through Irish came from one of the first two groups. The third group can generally be called ‘the students who have an interest in Irish’. These students, while they have not had any formal teaching through Irish before, make the decision to study Fraincis trí Ghaeilge because they claim to have an interest in the language itself. Many of these students generally study Irish at third level but this is not always the case. Each year, a small percentage of students study Fraincis trí Ghaeilge right through to their degree while their second degree subject is not Irish. I will elaborate further on the make-up of these groups later in this paper when I scrutinize the exam results received by each group of students. As already stated, slightly over 10 per cent of students of French choose to study Fraincis trí Ghaeilge throughout their undergraduate career. In terms of actual numbers, this amounts to a group of between fifteen and twenty-five students in first year, while in second and final years the numbers vary from five to eight students. While in first year the group size may actually be larger than the groups who study through English, in second and final years, the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge groups are significantly smaller than the French through English groups. The Fraincis trí Ghaeilge groups, particularly in the latter stages of the degree process, benefit from a smaller group size and hence have more time af forded to them by the teacher.

2 What Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Involves In each of the three undergraduate years, the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge teacher gives an introductory talk to the student cohort, partly to make students aware of the existence of Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and partly to reassure students that all areas of the language programme will be covered just as thoroughly

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through Irish as they are through English. As Fraincis trí Ghaeilge is an optional group, it is important to make students aware of it, of the advantages that it presents as well as the f lexibility within the course itself. It is important for students to be aware that they have the option of taking Fraincis trí Ghaeilge on a trial basis and, if unhappy, they may switch back to the mainstream class. This makes Fraincis trí Ghaeilge an attractive option, as students can experience the class before deciding whether to take it or not. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge involves three contact hours per week in each of the three undergraduate years. This comprises classes which cover dif ferent skill sets over the three years. There is no ab initio French class in NUI Galway, and first year moves very quickly from basic grammar, starting with the basic tenses in French, to more complicated subjects, which cover grammatical areas such as the subjunctive and personal and relative pronouns. The French Department thus recommends that students have a higher level C1, or above, in the Leaving Certificate in order to have the tools to be able to cope with the standard expected from them in first year. 1BA language classes comprise a grammar lecture, a small group class based on exercises to reinforce the grammar lecture and a small group class dedicated to reading and oral comprehension. The grammar lecture is delivered to the entire cohort of 1BA, with the exception of the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students, and this cohort is subsequently broken into smaller groups for reinforcement and comprehension classes. The Fraincis trí Ghaeilge programme follows a similar structure, i.e. a grammar lecture and two small group classes, with all three components being delivered by the same teacher. 2BA reinforces the learning outcomes achieved in 1BA and extends them, with translation being an integral part of 2BA language teaching. Translation both into and from French is employed to reinforce grammar points being dealt with. Language classes are dedicated to oral and written skills, while grammar is also taught on a bi-weekly basis. There are no grammar lectures in 2BA, the cohort is generally broken into three groups: two English-speaking groups and a Fraincis trí Ghaeilge group. The English-speaking groups tend to comprise between twenty and twenty-five students while the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge group generally has an average of eight students.


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Final year or 3/4 BA students spend a minimum of three months in a Francophone country and the majority of them have spent an academic year in either France or Belgium as part of the Erasmus programme. The 3/4BA language programme is mainly translation-based; it also comprises more advanced grammar classes. Students are divided in the same way as in second year, with the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students comprising the smallest language group. Continuous and end-of-year assessment in all three years is trilingual. Exam papers are written mainly in French; whenever English appears on an exam paper an Irish equivalent is also provided. All students have the choice to answer questions in English or Irish regardless of the discipline followed during the year. Translations into the target language are in both Irish and English. Equally, all students doing translations from French may do so into English or Irish. The promotion of a bilingual university extends beyond the provision of classes so all students have the opportunity to engage with Irish during assessment whether they have decided to take the subject through Irish or not.

3 Students’ Perceptions of the Advantages Associated with Taking Fraincis trí Ghaeilge In this section, I will discuss the perceived advantages, on the part of students, associated with Fraincis trí Ghaeilge. These opinions are drawn from a report issued by Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge in 2005 in which students studying at least one subject through Irish were interviewed. I will also base this section on written feedback received from Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. While much of this feedback is anecdotal in nature it provides valuable insights into how Fraincis trí Ghaeilge is perceived. The Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students have the same language coordinator throughout their entire undergraduate career and as such, he/she is in a position to gain various insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the

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students. Being solely responsible for course design, while still linked closely with that of the mainstream group, the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge coordinator can orient the classes towards a certain grammar point with which the group has dif ficulty or which needs to be refreshed. As the language coordinator in mainstream French is dif ferent in each year, this continuity is not necessarily available to students studying French through English. Having the same language teacher for the three language hours in each year is seen as an advantage. The Fraincis trí Ghaeilge grammar lecture is delivered at the same time as the mainstream language lecture, however, as their English counterparts are split into groups to work on reinforcement exercises with dif ferent teachers, the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students have the same teacher who can continue explaining a given grammar point if necessary. While other teachers are made aware of the progress made in the language lecture delivered through English, this could not be compared with the continuity the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge teacher can of fer his/ her students. This aspect is seen as being a particular advantage according to Fraincis trí Ghaeilge student feedback. The fact that the students remain together in a small group is also seen as advantageous for the learning process. Being in a small group allows for a much smaller teacher-student ratio, allowing the teacher more time to concentrate on the needs of each student. Remaining in the same group with the same peers for all language classes and throughout the undergraduate degree also leads to the establishment of a more cohesive group. Getting to know one’s classmates and availing of the opportunities to learn from them when exposed to peer-to-peer learning also has a beneficial impact on the language learners. The strong relationship created between peers and their teacher helps to create a relaxed classroom atmosphere where conversation in the target language is not only facilitated but also encouraged as there is less pressure being placed on the interlocutor in a relatively relaxed and comfortable setting. This atmosphere is largely facilitated by the ability to work in small groups with students who spend considerable amounts of time together as a unit. In student feedback, this point was reiterated: ‘Above all else, the biggest advantage associated with doing a subject through Irish is the smaller groups. There are only four in my group and we have more opportunities to discuss any dif ficulties with the subject with the lecturer.’


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Finally, the fact that these students are doing something dif ferent, a bit special, was also mentioned as a reason for doing the course through Irish. In feedback, one student stated that: ‘It’s a very positive group – we feel like we are the best students. We are a “special” group. We form a strong group and more than match up with any of the other French groups. Our teamwork is strong too.’ Becoming part of a bilingual university and engaging with a subject in a dif ferent way to the majority of students is seen as beneficial as it gives the students a dif ferent feeling of worth. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge classes are mainly delivered in Áras na Gaeilge, a building devoted to the speaking of Irish and within which the language of expression is Irish. The students felt that having their own building also added to this feeling of belonging to something special, to a group of students that were doing something a bit dif ferent in their journey towards their degree.

4 Students’ Perceptions of the Disadvantages Associated with Taking Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Many of the disadvantages explained here can be seen as corollaries of the advantages already explored. These disadvantages have been aired by students and have been addressed by the French department and the coordinator, where possible. However, the nature of the disadvantages tends to be such that there is no simple solution to them. I will now explore these disadvantages with a view to creating an accurate picture of the situation within which the students work. Having the same language teacher for all three language hours each week during the academic year, which was previously mentioned as an advantage, can also be perceived as a disadvantage. Being exposed to one style of teaching was mentioned as a major advantage for students as they did not have to get used to dif ferent modes of delivery and dif ferent manners of engagement with the subject. However, it was also felt that students lacked diversity of approach to language problems when being taught by

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only one teacher. For the majority of students, this was not an issue. However, some students considered that they would have a better grasp of a grammatical point if they had the benefit of having it explained to them using a dif ferent teaching style from a dif ferent teacher. It is, of course, impossible to have the best of both worlds in such a situation. While diversity of language teachers may be seen as an advantage for some, and is a reality for students who study French through English, the small numbers in Fraincis trí Ghaeilge mean that it would be unfeasible to rotate teachers on that stream. A major issue encountered by both the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge teacher and students relates to the fact that Irish is not the first language of the majority of Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. While there are a number of native speakers, the majority of the class is made up of students whose first language is English. These students are thus learning an L3 through the medium of an L2. As already stated, research seems to show that 70 per cent of students studying a university subject through Irish are either native speakers or have had schooling through Irish. It must not be discounted, however, that Irish is not the first language of many students and this can pose problems of basic comprehension and may also cause tension in class with a mixture of native and non-native speakers. A number of issues emerge from this concern; the basic issue of comprehension leads to the dropout of a number of students at an early stage. Many students attempt Fraincis trí Ghaeilge but quickly realize that their linguistic competence in Irish is not strong enough to engage with the subject through this language. The problem, however, extends beyond this issue of comprehension of the language used in class. Grammatical terminology also poses a problem for many language learners. While it must be said that this is also the case for those who study French through English, learning an L3 using unfamiliar grammatical terminology from the L2 poses initial problems for many. Needless to say, once the initial obstacle of learning this terminology is overcome and the terminology is adequately explained, this becomes less of an issue, but it is necessary to be aware of this concern when planning a class. Another disadvantage which is linked to dif ficulties encountered visà-vis grammatical terminology is the lack of a French grammar in the Irish


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language. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students receive a dif ferent in-house language booklet to mainstream students; however, all references to grammar are to the core French grammar, which is in the English language. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students are obliged to refer to the grammar used by the French class as a whole. The problem extends beyond the lack of a French grammar. Students who have had their schooling through Irish at secondary level had no recourse to a textbook in Irish as this does not exist at secondary level either. Hence, students may not have encountered the grammatical terminology in the Irish language either during their secondary education. By being asked to refer to an English language French grammar, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students are forced to engage with language learning through a third language, which in ef fect makes the decision to study Fraincis trí Ghaeilge partially redundant. There is the possibility to prescribe a French grammar written in the French language but this is not the case for Anglophone students so its prescription to Fraincis trí Ghaeilge could create a negative image for students considering choosing this option. A further issue arises, to a certain extent in first year, but more specifically in second and final years, with regard to the Irish language. Many students experience dif ficulties with the lexical complexity that is inherent to the Irish language. In first year, students are asked to translate from English or Irish into the target language, and in the second and final years, students translate both into and from French. Lexical dif ficulties associated with the Irish language make it dif ficult for translation into this language. Many students, as a result, often translate from Irish into French in exam settings. They subsequently choose to translate into English rather than Irish from French as they find that, not only are the roots of the words more similar in English, but that lexical dif ficulties in Irish often lead to the production of an incomplete or less than satisfactory translation. The relative lack of literature in the Irish language in comparison with English leads to dif ficulties for the teacher in sourcing adequate material that addresses the grammatical points to be assessed. The decision to study Fraincis trí Ghaeilge also seems to imply more work for students than for their Anglophone counterparts. When preparing a translation for class, students have often admitted that initially they have found themselves having to translate a text in French (L3) into English

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(L1) before translating it into Irish (L2). This is also true for translations from the L2 (Irish) into the L3 (French), which in many cases happens via the L1 (English). This practice does tend to diminish as students gain more experience in translation, it does, however, involve an additional burden upon the student already struggling to grapple with a new language. This burden seems to be compensated for by the outcomes achieved by the students who put this extra work in and develop strong skills in the practice of translation. A final issue raised by students is a feeling of isolation from the main cohort of French students. This situation arises from being in a small group with the same teacher for all language classes and the only opportunity to integrate with peers from the Anglophone class occurs in content lectures or in tutorials. The Fraincis trí Ghaeilge student thus have fewer opportunities to meet with other members of staf f. This is an issue that has also been seen as beneficial by some Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. As already mentioned, they enjoy feeling part of a special group that is dif ferent. It would seem that the disadvantages that have been encountered by Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students outnumber the advantages. However, the numbers deciding to study it have remained steady at just over 10 per cent of the cohort over the years. Students obviously see merit in pursuing this option. In the next section I will examine the academic results obtained by students taking Fraincis trí Ghaeilge in comparison with their Anglophone counterparts in an ef fort to find academic reasons for students’ continued interest in choosing Fraincis trí Ghaeilge even though the disadvantages seem to outweigh the advantages.

5 Comparison of Student Scores I have chosen to compare the students’ scores using tables showing exam results in two distinct areas. Firstly, I have compared results achieved in language exams. This score is an aggregate, calculated on scores obtained in continuous assessment, the end-of-year oral examination and the end-


509

of-year written language exam. The second set of results I have decided to examine is the overall scores achieved in French as a subject. The French Department in NUI Galway is a Francophone department, where all lectures are delivered through the medium of French and where all assessment is delivered and answered through the medium of French. While language is not assessed in content courses, it is important that students make use of their language skills in order to convey their message and answer the question asked. The content modules assess, in ef fect, the ability of students to apply their language skill set to the more ref lective task of engaging with literary or cultural theory through the medium of French. Three dif ferent sets of results are produced. The first set is a direct comparison of the results achieved by both groups of students. The results collected are divided into three academic years and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge results are displayed alongside mainstream French results in order to highlight any divergences. The second set of results set aside native speakers of Irish as a separate group from Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. The reasons for this will be discussed in the next section. The final set of results displays the progress made by students over their three year undergraduate career in NUI Galway. These figures are calculated with a view to establishing an insight into the progression made by students from their beginning, in First Year, right through to the results obtained at degree level. Best practice would suggest that there should be a steady, yet apparent, progression in the results obtained. There are a number of factors to be taken into account with the figures produced. Examiner subjectivity is, of course, an issue with all results. However, all language exams were double-marked which to an extent makes results more reliable. As already mentioned, students have the opportunity to carry out their exams either through Irish or through English. The figures produced in the following tables ref lect scores obtained by students who have studied French either through English or through Irish. The figures do not indicate whether these students decided to sit the exam through Irish or through English. One final issue needs to be f lagged; while the numbers studying mainstream French range from over 100 in first year to fifty or so in the second and final years, the numbers studying Fraincis trí Ghaeilge are much smaller – fifteen to twenty in first year and five to eight

510

Éamon Ó Cofaigh

in the second and final years. These small numbers mean that trends can very easily be skewed by a very strong or very weak student. This is particularly apparent in the analysis of student progress over their undergraduate career where we move from a class of twenty in first year to a class of five to eight in the second and final ye. This is an unfortunate consequence of small numbers, hence any conclusions derived from these figures must be made with the caveat that further research would need to be carried out in order to establish more reliable results. Firstly, taking 1BA results, scores were collated from 2003 until 2010, giving eight years of results which can be examined. The numbers in first year generally range from 100 to 120 in mainstream French and fifteen to twenty-five in Fraincis trí Ghaeilge. Tables 33 and 34 show the results achieved by both groups of students. The first point of note is that average scores for mainstream French have remained largely consistent over the eight year period. The language scores obtained range from a low of 45 per cent obtained in 2008 to a high of 53 per cent obtained in 2004. Mainstream overall scores are equally consistent, ranging from a low of 45 per cent in 2008 to a high of 52 per cent again in 2004. There is also an apparent link between language and overall scores obtained, 2004 being the strongest cohort in this regard. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students consistently outscore their Anglophone counterparts. On no occasion does either the language or the overall score in Fraincis trí Ghaeilge dip below that achieved in mainstream French. Table 33 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 1BA Language 1BA Language 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

50

53

48

51

50

45

48

49

Gaeilge

58

57

57

54

56

53

55

60

511

Learning French through Irish Table 34 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 1BA French 1BA Overall 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

50

52

47

49

51

45

47

49

Gaeilge

56

55

55

51

54

53

55

58

2BA figures are based on cohorts that are significantly smaller than those in First Year. Tables 35 and 36 show the results obtained by 2BA mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. Once again, the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students outscore mainstream students. However, due to the smaller numbers involved, specifically in the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge class, the consistency that was apparent in 1BA is no longer visible. Mainstream 2BA language results range from a low of 52 per cent in 2006 to a high of 58 per cent in 2005 and 2008, with overall scores varying from a low of 49 per cent to a high of 56 per cent. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge percentage averages f luctuate much more, language scores ranging from a low of 55 per cent to a high of 77 per cent and overall scores from 53 per cent to 74 per cent. Looking more closely at these figures, it becomes apparent that 2008 was an exceptional year for the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge class and, if this anomalous year is removed, then peak scores obtained are 64 per cent in language and 60 per cent for the overall score, which fits the trend of Fraincis trí Ghaeilge outscoring mainstream French by a small margin. It is also interesting to note that while the divergence between language and overall scores in mainstream French is larger in 2BA, it is still not to the same extent as for Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. Table 35 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 2BA Language 2BA Language 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

55

57

58

52

57

58

57

53

Gaeilge

61

62

63

55

64

77

58

56

512

Éamon Ó Cofaigh Table 36 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 2BA French 2BA Overall 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

53

53

56

49

54

56

52

54

Gaeilge

59

53

59

52

57

74

54

60

Final year averages follow much the same lines as those in 2BA, as student numbers remain the same in both years. Table 37 shows the language results obtained in 3/4BA by mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. Mainstream French students are, again, outscored by their Fraincis trí Ghaeilge counterparts. Mainstream French students’ scores range from 53 per cent to 60 per cent in language and from 54 per cent to 59 per cent overall. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students’ scores range from 59 per cent to 74 per cent in language and from 59 per cent to 72 per cent overall. There is one set of very high scores in the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge group which is the same group that achieved the high scores previously examined in 2BA. If this group is discounted, it gives highs of 72 per cent in language and 64 per cent overall for the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge group. Finally, the dif ference between language and overall scores obtained by mainstream students is much less defined than is the case for Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students. Table 37 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 3/4BA Language 3/4BA Language 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

55

53

60

58

57

57

58

53

Gaeilge

62

69

66

72

62

63

59

74

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Learning French through Irish Table 38 Average Scores for Mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge Students in 3/4BA French 3/4BA Overall 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

54

56

59

58

57

56

59

55

Gaeilge

61

63

64

62

59

62

61

72

6 Irish Native Speaker L3 Ability The second set of figures to be examined is that in which I extracted the results of native Irish speakers from the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge group. In an attempt to explain the high scores obtained by Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students, I have decided to compare the results obtained between three groups: the mainstream class, the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students and the native speakers of Irish. I have made this decision as there are a number of studies that suggest that bilinguals are relatively better at learning a new language than monolinguals (Cummins 1991, Cenoz 2000). However, Ellis posits that acquiring two languages from birth is very dif ferent from acquiring a second language later in life (Kroll 2005). Native Irish speakers are bilingual as they generally speak both Irish and English from birth and have thus experienced bilingual first language acquisition. This is to be dif ferentiated from second language acquisition (SLA) which has occurred with nonnative Irish speakers. Keshavarz and Astaneh (2004) contend that bilingual students who learn L1 and L2 both academically and orally, progress better in the acquisition of an L3 than bilinguals who learn their L1 only orally. The following tables were examined with a view to establishing whether there are dif ferences in the language learning ability of these two groups, both of which learn French through the medium of Irish. This survey deals with very small numbers of students. There are some cohorts in which there were no native Irish speakers at all who were studying

514

Éamon Ó Cofaigh

French. While there are three years within which the native Irish speakers outscore both mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students in both language and overall, there are also four years in which the native speakers obtain a lower score than their Fraincis trí Ghaeilge counterparts and, on one occasion, a lower score than the mainstream students. This trend continues in 2BA, where the native speakers outscore both other groups on three occasions, in three other years they score less well than the two other groups. In 3/4BA the native speakers outscore both other groups on three occasions, score less than mainstream students on one occasion and less than Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students on four occasions. Overall, scores follow the same trends as scores for language. While it is dif ficult to draw any conclusions from these figures, it would seem that native speakers seem to do slightly less well than Fraincis trí Ghaeilge both in language and overall. This conclusion would follow Cenoz’s (2000) and Thomas’ (1988) argument, which posits that students who have received instruction in a second language and/or are literate in the language are more proficient in the acquisition of a third language. Table 39 Average Scores for Mainstream, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and Native Irish Bilingual Students in 1BA Language 1BA Language 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

50

53

48

51

50

45

48

49

Gaeilge

64

55

57

56

62

53

55

63

Native Speaker

48

65

58

52

N/A

61

54

53

Table 40 Average Scores for Mainstream, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and Native Irish Bilingual Students in 2BA Language 2BA Language 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

55

57

58

52

57

58

57

53

Gaeilge

58

69

59

66

63

77

63

56

Native Speaker

72

49

64

48

68

N/A

51

N/A

515

Learning French through Irish Table 41 Average Scores for Mainstream, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and Native Irish Bilingual Students in 3/4BA Language 3/4BA Language 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

English

55

53

60

58

57

57

58

53

Gaeilge

64

70

61

75

60

69

57

74

Native Speaker

60

65

76

66

63

55

62

N/A

7 Student Linguistic Progression The final set of figures to be discussed involves the progression of students from first through to final year. Table 42 indicates the language progression of students who have studied for their French degree with the mainstream group and table 43 shows Fraincis trí Ghaeilge student language progression. Similarly, tables 44 and 45 show the overall progression of these same groups. The first feature that becomes immediately apparent is that the trend in mainstream French in both language and overall score is very consistent; Fraincis trí Ghaeilge on the other hand is much more erratic. The larger numbers in mainstream French make for more consistent trends. The second observation is that there is consistent progress made in language by mainstream students studying French. Students in First Year achieve on average 50 per cent, this progresses to an average of 56 per cent in 2BA and there is a slight progression to an average of 57 per cent in 3/4BA. The progression in overall scores for mainstream students is even more evident. An overall average mark of 50 per cent is achieved in 1BA; this progresses to an average of 54 per cent in 2BA and 57 per cent in 3/4BA. It is very interesting to note that students’ language progression is not as defined as progression in overall French. In order to analyse the Fraincis trí Ghaeilge progression, I have removed the previously mentioned anomalous year from the equation. In language, Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students averaged 57 per cent in 1BA; this progressed

516

Éamon Ó Cofaigh

to 61 per cent in 2BA and to 64 per cent in 3/4BA. There was also a welldefined progression in overall scores. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students averaged 54 per cent overall in 1BA, which progressed to 56 per cent in 2BA and culminated with a large progression to 62 per cent in 3/4BA. The striking dif ference with the mainstream averages is that while overall progression amongst Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students follows the trends established by their mainstream peers, albeit at a slightly higher percentile, there is also a substantial progression in language which is largely absent in the mainstream cohort. It is perhaps these results that provide the most interesting set of information about the dif ferences between the two groups. Table 42 Average Student Language Progression (English Students) Student Language Progression (English) 1BA

2BA

4BA

2005

50

55

60

2006

50

57

58

2007

53

58

57

2008

48

52

57

2009

51

57

58

2010

50

58

53

Table 43 Average Student Language Progression (Irish Students) Student Language Progression (Gaeilge) 1BA

2BA

4BA

2005

58

61

66

2006

58

62

72

2007

57

63

62

2008

57

55

63

2009

54

64

59

2010

N/A

N/A

N/A

517

Learning French through Irish Table 44 Average Student Overall Progression (English Students) Student Overall Progression (Béarla) 1BA

2BA

4BA

2005

50

53

59

2006

50

53

58

2007

52

56

57

2008

47

49

56

2009

49

54

59

2010

51

56

55

Table 45 Average Student Overall Progression (Irish Students) Student Overall Progression (Gaeilge) 1BA

2BA

4BA

2005

55

59

64

2006

56

53

62

2007

55

59

59

2008

55

52

62

2009

51

57

61

2010

N/A

N/A

N/A

At this point, it is appropriate to go back to a point made in the section on the advantages of studying French through Irish. In their feedback, students stated that it was an advantage to have the same language coordinator throughout their three to four year undergraduate career. The figures above indicate that this point may have some validity. As progression in overall scores advances both amongst mainstream and Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students, progression is recorded for Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students in language as well. This is not the case for mainstream language students. The reasons for this lack of progression in one sector, while there is noticeable improvement in other sectors, are dif ficult to explain. The lack of

518

Éamon Ó Cofaigh

curriculum alignment in language as a result of changing language coordinators may have a detrimental ef fect on the progression of student’s needs. As priorities and styles of dif ferent language coordinators place emphasis on dif ferent aspects of language learning, students become unsure as to the learning outcomes expected. It could also be argued that a lack of communication between language coordinators in each respective year would also add to this uncertainty amongst learners. Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students benefit from having the same language coordinator at all stages of their undergraduate career and academic continuity from first year to degree level is thereby maintained.

7 Conclusion Fraincis trí Ghaeilge students remain a small percentage of the overall cohort of students who study French. While the figures reveal better results for these students, it is dif ficult to ascertain why this may be the case. These students do not necessarily take the examinations through Irish and hence are examined by a whole range of dif ferent examiners, yet their results come back as above the average. These results indicate that bilingual students are more successful than monolingual students. This supports previous studies which have shown that bilingual students achieve better academic grades in language acquisition as already mentioned. The results also show that students who have learned L1 and L2 both orally and academically are more successful than students who have learned their L1 in an oral context. Finally, the results show that bilingual students show more consistent progress throughout their undergraduate curriculum than monolingual students. It has been argued in this paper that having one language coordinator in charge of the curriculum development and alignment of the language component of a degree provides the environment within which students can progress their linguistic skills more consistently.


519

References Cenoz, J. and Jessner, U. (2000). English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language. Clevedon, Buf falo: Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (1991). ‘Language learning and bilingualism’, Sophia Linguistica, 29, 1–194. Keshavarz, M. and Astaneh, H. (2004). ‘The Impact of Bilinguality on the Learning of English Vocabulary as a Foreign Language (L3)’, Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 7, 295–302. Kroll, J.F. and de Groot, A.M.B. (2005). Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ní Shéaghdha, A. (2005). An Teagasc trí Ghaeilge ag Leibhéal Fochéime in Ollscoil na hÉireann, Gaillimh: Taithí na Foirne agus na Mac Léinn in 2003/4. Tuarascáil de chuid Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge, Aibreán 2005. Ó Laoire, M. (2004). From L2 to L3/L4 a Study of Learners’ Metalinguistic Awareness after 13 years of Learning Irish. Dublin: Trinity College, Centre for Language and Communication Studies. Ritchie, W.C. and Bhatia, T.K. (2009). The New Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Bingley: Emerald. Thomas, J. (1988). ‘The Role Played by Metalinguistic Awareness in Second and Third Language Learning’, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 9, 235–47.


Pilar Alderete-Díez is a university teacher in Spanish at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is currently finishing her PhD in Language Learning and Classroom Research with the University of Valladolid. She has taught Spanish at university level since 1999, and has created dif ferent materials for the teaching and learning of Spanish at Trent University (Canada) and with CELT (NUI Galway) for the NDLR. Encarnación Atienza teaches in the Translation and Linguistic Science Department of the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, where she teaches Spanish on the BA in Translation and Interpreting; she also collaborates on the Master’s in Teacher Training at the University of Barcelona and the Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Her research focuses on professional development for teachers, critical discourse analysis in education and teaching/ learning assessment. Tá Victor Bayda ina léachtóir le Gaeilge i Stát-Ollscoil Mhoscó ó 2005 i leith. Is céimí de chuid Dhámh na Fileolaíochta Stát-Ollscoil Mhóscó é agus chosain sé a thráchtas dochtúireachta i 2009. Tá sé anois i mbun oibre ar théacsleabhar Gaeilge do mhic léinn Rúiseacha. Claudia Borghetti is a researcher in the Department of Modern Foreign Languages and Literatures at the University of Bologna where she is researching Intercultural Foreign Language Education, teaching Italian as a Foreign/Second Language and Corpus Linguistics in Foreign Language Teaching. She also works as teacher trainer and teaches Italian as a Second Language. Linda Butler is Academic Co-ordinator of Teaching and Learning in Ennis Regional Learning Centre, Co. Clare. She previously worked as a drama educator in the Faculty of Education at Mary Immaculate College,

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Limerick. She holds a doctorate in drama pedagogies in facilitating critical theatre practices that promote practical and research-based links within the community in partnership with the university sector. Daniel Cassany is a lecturer in the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. His expertise lies in the field of written communication, having published many books on the topic. From 1993–2003, he co-directed several journals on language and literature teaching and learning. From 2006, he has been the director of a Research and Development Project on Critical Literacies. Emanuela Cotroneo è laureata in Lingue e letterature straniere e in Scienze della formazione primaria, con specializzazione in Didattica della lingua italiana a stranieri. È dottoranda di ricerca in Lingue, culture e TIC presso l’Università di Genova. Si occupa dell’insegnamento dell’italiano L2 e di formazione glottodidattica per docenti. Patrick Farren directs Modern Languages within the School of Education at the National University of Ireland, Galway. He has extensive experience in the Irish post-primary sector and has worked and studied in Europe, the US, North Africa and the Middle East. He is an executive member of the Irish Research Association for Applied Linguistics and Chief Editor of TEANGA, its peer-reviewed journal. Laura Filardo Llamas is a lecturer at the University of Valladolid. Her main area of research is discourse analysis and ideology. She has also done research on L2 acquisition, and is involved both as teacher and module coordinator in the Master’s in Bilingualism at the University of Valladolid. Nataša Gajšt is a lecturer in English. She teaches Business English in the Faculty of Economics and Business at the University of Maribor, Slovenia. Her professional interests lie in non-literary translation, corpus linguistics, contrastive analysis and genre analysis, researching ESP vocabulary acquisition, autonomous language learning and ESP lexicography.


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Emma García Sanz is a graduate in English and German Philology from the University of Valladolid. She also holds a Master’s in Teaching Spanish as a Foreign Language from Universidad Antonio de Nebrija. She has taught Spanish at the University of English and Foreign Languages (India), the University of Sarre (Germany) and the the University of Bonn (Germany). She currently teaches in the Romanic Department at the University of Duisburgo-Essen in Germany, where she is doing a PhD in Spanish as a Foreign Language. Elisa Ghia graduated cum laude in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics from the University of Pavia in 2007, with a dissertation on the ef fects of exposure to subtitled films on the acquisition of foreign language syntax. Her research interests are audiovisual translation, second language acquisition and spoken English. Alessandra Giglio is a PhD student in Language, Culture and ICT at the University of Genova, and has an MA in Teaching Italian as a Foreign Language. She teaches in an International School and works on e-learning with the Institute for Educational Technology (ITD) of the Italian National Research Council (CNR). M. Vicenta González Argüello teaches in the Hispanic Philology Department at the University of Barcelona and has a PhD in Education Sciences (Universidad de Barcelona). Her research focuses on classroom discourse in the Spanish as a Foreign Language classroom and ref lective practice in teacher training. She teaches at the University of Barcelona, Giron and UIMP-Instituto Cervantes. She has co-authored materials for Spanish as a foreign language including Así me gusta, 1 and 2 and Diccionario de Términos Clave de ELE. Elena González-Cascos Jiménez is a lecturer at the University of Valladolid. Her main area of research is L2 acquisition, learning, teaching and methodology. She is director of the Master’s in Bilingualism at the University of Valladolid.

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Henrik Gottlieb is associate professor and head of the Center for Translation Studies and Lexicography at the University of Copenhagen. Since 2006 he has been chief editor of the international journal Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. Apart from screen translation, his fields of research include corpus linguistics, lexicography and language contact studies, particularly English inf luence on other languages. Jennifer Hatte was born in Oxford and trained as a French teacher in London, where she first taught in comprehensive schools. She completed her undergraduate and postgraduate degrees at the University of New England, Australia. She has taught French language and literature at UNE for eighteen years. Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin lectures at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is co-director of the MA in Advanced Language Skills and teaches Italian Language (including Italian for Special Purposes) and Translation. She has published articles and books on language teaching methodology, language and new technologies and subtitling in language teaching and translators’ training. Florence Le Baron-Earle works at the University of Limerick, where she is completing her PhD thesis, funded by the Higher Education Authority through the Irish Social Sciences Platform (ISSP). Her doctoral dissertation investigates the role of Information and Communication Technologies and social media in the development of Intercultural Communicative Competence by students of French. David Little retired in 2008 as head of the School of Linguistic, Speech and Communication Sciences and associate professor of Applied Linguistics at Trinity College Dublin. His principal research interest is the theory and practice of learner autonomy in second language education. He was director of Integrate Ireland Language and Training (2001–2008), chair of the Council of Europe’s European Language Portfolio Validation Committee (2006–2010) and is a member of several Council of Europe expert groups.


525

Nollaig Mac Congáil is registrar and deputy president at the National University of Ireland, Galway. Before taking up his present position, he was a senior lecturer in the Irish Department in the same university. He has published widely on Irish-language periodicals and newspapers, Donegal writers and regional literature as well as Irish-language grammar and modern Irish literature in translation. D’fhreastail Belinda McHale ar Ollscoil na hÉireann, Gaillimh, áit ar bhain sí céim BA amach sa Ghaeilge agus sa Bhéarla, an tArd-Dioplóma i gCumarsáid Fheidhmeach agus céim mháistreachta sa Nua-Ghaeilge. Is Feidhmeannach Teanga í in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge san Ollscoil chéanna. Bíonn sí ag dearadh cúrsaí Gaeilge, ag teagasc agus ag plé le taighde. Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha is a learning technologist with specific responsibility for Modern Languages. She manages the multimedia language laboratories and self-study facilities of An Teanglann at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She also manages the recording studio in the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching. She is the founding member and ongoing coordinator of the National Digital Learning Repository’s Modern Languages’ Community of Practice. She has a BA in Gaeilge and French and holds postgraduate qualifications in media and communications, IT and education. Dorothy Ní Uigín works in Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge at the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is interested in Language Teaching and Acquisition and teaches modules on the History of Translation in Ireland and the History of Irish-language Media (on-line). She holds a BA in English and Irish from the National University of Ireland, Galway, as well as an MA in Irish, an MA in Literature and Publishing and a PhD in Irish. She has just completed an MA in Academic Practice. Susanna Nocchi is a lecturer in Italian at the Dublin Institute of Technology. She has a degree in Scandinavian Studies from the University of Pisa and an MPhil in Applied Linguistics from Trinity College Dublin.

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She is currently working on her PhD on the teaching of foreign languages in virtual worlds. Her research interests include Computer Assisted Language Learning, Activity Theory, Intercultural Awareness and Teaching Italian as a Foreign Language. Éamon Ó Cofaigh is a member of the French Department and Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge at the National University of Ireland, Galway, where he teaches Fraincis trí Ghaeilge and coordinates the part-time BA in Irish. He recently completed a Postgraduate Diploma in Academic Practice and is nearing completion of a PhD in French Studies. Cristina Oddone teaches English in Italian high schools and is a PhD student of Languages, Cultures and ICT at the University of Genova. She is interested in using Web tools in CLIL contexts, and also researches the role of songs and films in the teaching of foreign languages and in dealing with the linguistic and cultural issues involved in language learning. Maria Pavesi is a professor of English Language and Linguistics at the University of Pavia. Her research has addressed several topics in English Applied Linguistics and has focused on Second Language Acquisition, the English of Science, Corpus Linguistics and Audiovisual Translation. Her publications include La traduzione filmica. Aspetti del parlato doppiato dall’inglese all’italiano, and (as co-editeor) Analysing audiovisual dialogue: Linguistic and translational insights. Lucía Pintado Gutiérrez works at the University of Leicester, having previously worked at the University of Limerick. Her research focuses on Pedagogical Translation, an area in which she is completing a PhD thesis. She is interested in Translation Studies and Linguistics, and is also a freelance translator and interpreter. Verónica Cristina Trujillo González is a lecturer in the Department of Modern Languages and Literature at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. She teaches French as a Foreign Language. Her research interests include meta-lexicography, translation and cultural approaches in language.

Index of Names

Acosta Robles, P. 468 Addolorato, A. 226 Adelman, M.B. 292 Adler, P. 341 Afeita, Y. 11 Akazi, I. 11 Al-Kufaishi, A. 179 Allegra, C. 232 Allwright, D. 389 Ames, P. 16 Ampka, A. 431 Anderman, G. 58 Anderson, T. 272, 301–2, 481 Archer, W. 481 Ardizzone, P. 223 Arger, G. 486 Aristóteles 200 Armitage, J. 437 Astaneh, H. 499, 513 Atkins, B.T.S. 101 Baker, M. 57 Balboni, P.E. 260, 333–4, 336–8, 342–3, 353, 355 Balota, D.A. 123 Baltova, I. 124, 157 Bannister, G. 317 Banzato, M. 244 Barger, J. 242 Barnes, D. 76–8 Barton, D. 13, 16 Bassnett, S. 142 Bayle, P. 197 Bedini, S. 228–9

Beglar, D. 444 Béjoint, H. 108 Bell, M.W. 266 Bell, R.E. 487 Bell, S. 146 Belz, J.A. 275 Bennett, M.J. 294, 333, 336–8, 340–2, 353, 355 Benson, P. 389, 390, 445 Berenguer, L. 96–8 Berger, J. 425, 433 Berger, P. 222–3, 231–2 Beugrande, R. 367 Biber, D. 164 Bielsa, E. 51–2 Bird, S. 118 Bloom, B.S. 340, 351 Bluemink, J. 267–8 Boal, A. 423, 431 Bocanegra-Valle, A. 445 Boisson, C. 198 Bonaiuti, G. 219–21 Bonsignori, V. 166, 169 Borghetti, C. 4, 336, 356 Brammerts, H. 297 Brice Heath, S. 16 Brincat, J. 156 Brislin, R.W. 333, 336–40, 342, 352–3, 355 Brock, C.A. 435 Brown, D. 411, 414 Brown, H.D. 4, 442 Bruner, J. 424, 432 Bubel, C.M. 119, 158 Bueno García, A. 177

528 Burt, M. 181 Bussell, A. 485 Buttjes, D. 294 Bybee, J. 123 Byram, M. 270–1, 292–7, 333, 335–8, 340, 349–50, 353, 388 Cadierno, T. 123 Caimi, A. 155 Calvani, A. 220 Calvo Pérez, J. 175 Cameron, D. 291 Camilleri, G.A. 344 Canale, M. 294 Cano, A. 19 Cano, E. 366–7 Caon, F. 227 Carr, W. 394–5 Carrasco, A. 16 Carter, R.A. 159, 428, 440. Caruana, S. 156 Cassany, D. 5, 16, 18, 20, 34 Catford, J.C. 127 Cattrysse, P. 168 Caviglia, F. 249, 259 Cavigneaux, A. 198 Celce-Murcia, M. 425 Cenoz, J. 513 Chaudron, C. 426 Chaume Varela, F. 158, 168 Chaume, F. 119 Chen, G. 336–40, 346, 352 Chomsky, N. 138, 140, 425 Christensen, C.M. 481 Christie, F. 470–1 Cigognini, M.E. 221, 234, 238 Cohen, M. 198 Cole, M. 16, 229 Coleman, J.A. 270 Collins, C. 266, 471 Cook, G. 175

Index of Names Cook, V. 426 Corbett, J. 294 Corder, P. 140 Cordero, A.D. 494 Córdova, G. 19 Cross, J. 231 Crozet, C. 292 Cummins, J. 513 D’Achille, P. 228 D’Ydewalle, G. 118, 126 Dam, L. 76, 412, 417 Danan, M. 118, 124, 156–7 Dansereau, D. 413 Davis, A. 244 De Arriba García, C. 176, 178, 181 De Covarrubias, S. 200 De Linde, Z. 120 De Nooy, J. 298, 312 De Ridder, I. 20 De Rossi, M. 242–3 De Wachter, L. 269 Deardorf f, D.K. 294, 296–7, 333–4, 337–8, 340, 352 Deci, E.L. 77 Deignan, A. 146 DeKeyser, R.M. 123 Dell’Aria, C. 275 Denscombe, M. 404 Dewey, J. 369, 423–4 Diadori, P. 225 Díaz Cintas, J. 121 Dickey, M.D. 266 Diehl, W.C. 272 Dollerup, C. 54 Donnelly 430, 438 Dooley, K.E. 292 Dougiamas, M. 253 Downes, S. 221 Drosdov, T. 181 Drummond 484

529

Index of Names Dubois, J. 203 Dulay, H. 181 Ebeling, J. 57 Eggins 470 Egiazarian, L. 11 Ehrman, M. 181 Elliott, J. 395 Ellis, N.C. 122–3, 168, 171 Ellis, R. 1, 122–3, 167, 427 Engelberg, S. 100, 108 Engeström, Y. 273–5 Ezquerra, A. 102 Fantini, A.E. 297, 334, 337–8, 340, 350–3, 355 Farr, F. 435 Farrell, T.S.C. 365 Farren, P. 6, 385, 387, 392 Fernández Sánchez, E. 175 Fernández, R. 468 Fernández-Sevilla, J. 203 Filardo Llamas, L. 3, 468 Fini, A. 221–3, 232, 234, 238 Fischer, R. 58 Fleming, M. 296 Forchini, P. 159, 161–2, 165–6, 169 Ford, P. 243 Forrester, M. 147 Fowler, G. 487 Franch, M. 248 Franklin, M.A. 484 Fratter, I. 230, 244 Freire, P. 423, 428, 431–2 Friso, C. 243–5 Frost, P. 394 Furiassi, C. 58 Furstenberg, G. 292, 298 Gagné, R.M. 427 Galisson, R. 209

Gambier, Y. 156, 168 García Sanz, E. 2, 109 García Yebra, V. 98 García-Medall, J. 175 Gardner, G.H. 335 Gardner, H. 427 Garrison, D.R. 292, 299, 301–2, 481 Gass, S. 122, 140 Gass, S.M. 155 Gaston, J. 336–8, 344–5, 353, 355 Gee, J.P. 16 Gellerstam, M. 58–63 Ghia, E. 2, 118, 124, 127, 130–1, 155–6, 164 Goldschneider, J.M. 123 Goodman, N. 423 Goody, J. 16 Görlach, M. 58 Gottlieb, H. 5–6, 39, 42, 46–8, 51, 55–6, 60–1, 64, 66, 121, 156 Green, M.C. 159 Gregg, K.R. 175 Greidanus, T. 444 Grigaravičiūtė, I. 56 Guerrini, F. 224 Guidere, M. 207 Guilbert, L. 203 Gutenberg, J. xx, 197, 241–3 Habermas, J. 407 Hadar, L. 444 Hadley, G. 185 Haensch, G. 202–3 Hajmohammadi, A. 51 Hale, C. 183 Hall, E.T. 291–2 Halliday, M.A.K. 470–7, 479 Halskov, J. 54 Halverson, R.J. 292 Hamilton, M. 13, 16 Hancock, J.T. 267–8 Handford, M. 427

530 Hanna, B.E. 298, 312 Hausmann, F.J. 101, 204 Havelock, E.A. 16 Heathcote, D. 423, 426, 435 Heilbron, J. 40–2, 44 Herlihy, J. 437 Hernández Sacristan, C. 179 Hernández, H. 99 Hewson 208 Heyward, M. 269 Hilwerda, I. 55 Hismanoglu, M. 413 Holec, H. 73–4, 76 Hollander, M. 444 Holmes, J.S. 96–7, 176 Hoselitz, B.F. 335 House, J. 181 Hugo, V. 31 Hulstijn, J.H. 444 Hunt, A. 444 Hurtado Albir, A. 97, 102 Hut, P. 267, 272 Huttunen, I. 407, 416 Ihde, T. 328 Ikegami, E. 267, 272 Ivanic, R. 16 Izarra, L. 329 Jakobson, R. 141–2 Janne, H. 74 Järvelä, S. 267–8 Jenning, N. 266 Johansson, S. 57 Johnson, K. 181 Judickaité, L. 39 Kaikkonen, P. 388 Kalman, J. 16, 19 Kao 424, 431 Karamitroglou, F. 121

Index of Names Karlsson, L. 88 Kay, N. 120 Kearney, R. 438 Kelton, A.J. 266 Kemmis, S. 394–5 Kern 311 Keshavarz, M. 499, 513 Kim, Y.Y. 271 Kintsch, W. 26 Kiraly, D.C. 178, 181–2 Knapp, K. 335 Knapp-Potthof f, A. 335 Knight, S. 441 Knoble 19 Koda, K. 19 Kohonen, V. 388–9, 394 Korthagen, F.A.J. 365 Koskinen, P. 157 Kotter, M. 266 Kozlof f, S. 119, 166, 168 Kramsch, C. 271, 275, 293–5, 333, 336–8, 346–8, 353, 355 Krashen, S. 138–9, 442, 475 Krawutschke, P.W. 179 Kress, G. 16 Kroll, J.F. 513 Kukulska-Hulme, A. 227 Kussmaul, P. 181 Ladmiral, J. 176 Lado, R. 139–40, 293 Lahuerta Galán, J. 477 Langacker, R.W. 472 Lankshear, C. 19 Lantolf, J.P. 271, 354 Larsen, K. 49 Larsen-Freeman, D. 427 Laufer, B. 444 Lavault, E. 176, 181 Lázár, I. 291, 294, 297 Leckie-Tarrie, H. 471

531

Index of Names Lee, J. 179 Lee, M.J.W. 267, 272 Lemnitzer, L. 100, 108 Leont’ev, A. 273 Leppihalme, R. 145–6 Lessard-Cloustro, M. 443 Levelt, W.J.M. 123 Levine, D.R. 292 Levy, M. 4, 297, 312 Lewin, K. 366 Li, Y.C. 11 Ligorio, B. 267 Ligorio, M.B. 245 Lim, K.Y.T. 268 Lindegaard, A. 42 Little, D. 3, 5–6, 80, 87, 388–90, 406, 417, 429, 472 Little, K. 487 Littlewood, W. 468–9 Ljung, M. 60 Lo Bianco 292 Lønsmann, D. 60 Lopéz-Bonilla, G. 16 Lorenzzati, M. 16 Luria 273 Lyons, N. 365 Macaro, E. 390, 394 Mackey, A. 155 Macrì, P. 219–20, 253 Maddison, S. 311 Mahdavi, B. 11 Maldonado, C. 102 Malkiel, Y. 204 Marcelli, M. 232 Markey, M. 429–30 Markham, P. 118 Martí, F. 20 Martín García, J. 99, 101 Martin, L. 208, 293 Martínez Agudo, J. 175

Martínez de Sousa, J. 206 Marx, K. 273 Marzá I Ibàñez, A. 158 Matusov, E. 79 Mayoral Asensio, R. 177 Mazzolini, M. 311 McCarthy, M.J. 159, 427–8 McCloskey, J. 324 McLoughlin, D. 292 McLuhan 243 Mejer, L. 429 Merkel, A. 291 Merola, N.A. 267–8 Merriman, V. 433 Mesthrie, R. 66 Mezzadri, M. 236 Mich, L. 248 Mikhailova, T. 317 Mills, G.E. 394–5 Mizza, D. 245 Mohseni-Far, M. 443–4 Moon, R. 146–7 Moreno Jaén, M. 159, 162, 165 Morgan, C. 293, 350 Morrow, K. 426 Mounin, G. 198 Muller-Hartmann, A. 175 Murillo, N. 21–4, 26 Murphy, B. 143 Mynard, J. 292 Nation, I.S.P. 108 Navarro, I. 180 Nedergaard-Larsen, B. 40 Neuman, S.P. 157 Newmark, P. 209 Ní Dhonnchadha, M. 325 Ní Ghallachair, A. 324–5 Ní Mhistéil, S. 326–7 Nielsen, J. 235 Niño-Murcia, M. 16

532 Nord, C. 189 Nunan, D. 4, 391 Ó Baoill, D.P. 328 Ó Curnáin, B. 323, 325 Ó Giollagáin, C. 323 Ó Murchú, H. 322 Ó Murchú, M. 326–7 Ó Murchú, S. 328 Ó Riagáin, P. 429 Ó Sé, D. 328 Ó Siadhail, M. 328 O’Connell, E. 47 O’Keef fe, A. 428, 435 O’Neill, C. 424, 431 O’Reilly, T. 220 O’Toole, R. 245 Olmi, E. 246 Olson, D. 16 Ondrejka, C. 267 Ong, W. 16 Onysko, A. 58 Ortega, I. 203 Ortí Teruel, R. 33–4 Ortí, R. 11 Øverås, L. 122 Oxford, R. 179, 181 Paivio, A. 125 Palomares-Valera, M. 19 Paolinelli, M. 121 Pascua-Febles, I. 210 Pavakanun, U. 118, 126 Pavesi, M. 2, 119, 121–2, 125–6, 129, 131–2, 155–7, 158, 164 Pavlenko, A. 354 Pedersen, J. 40 Peña, J. 267–8 Perclová, R. 417 Perego, E. 120–2, 125–6, 132, 155–7 Perrone 393

Index of Names Persico, D. 249 Peter, L. 118 Petrucco, C. 242–3 Piaget, J. 245 Pinker, S. 293 Pintado Gutiérrez, L. 2, 177, 181 Pitman, I. 482 Poli, S. 219, 243 Pollard, A. 391 Pontecorvo, C. 245 Popkin, D. 495 Porter, R.E. 336–8, 340, 343, 352 Poveda, D. 16, 19 Pozzi, F. 249 Prator, C.H. 425 Preisler, B. 60 Prensky, M. 247–8, 259 Prins, E.S. 272 Pujol Vila, M. 477 Pujolà, J.T. 364 Pulaczewska, H. 58 Pulverness, A. 294 Py, B. 124–5 Quaglio, P. 119, 160, 163–9 Quemada, B. 203 Ranieri, M. 220 Rawson, K.A. 26 Remael, A. 121 Rey, A. 204–5 Richards, J.C. 4, 137, 140, 293 Richardson, W. 244, 302 Ridley, J. 388, 417–18 Rimbaud, A. 494 Risager, K. 333, 344, 349–50 Riva, G. 267–8 Rivoltella, P.C. 223 Rodgers, T. 137, 426 Rodríguez Martín, M.E. 159, 162, 164–5, 169

533

Index of Names Rogers, M. 4, 58, 157, 426 Roiss, S. 181 Romero Fresco, P. 158, 167 Romiszowski, A.J. 220 Rossi, F. 119 Rossiter, M. 247 Rühlemann, C. 159, 164 Ruhstaller, S. 99 Sabatini, F. 228 Salvatores, G. 246 Samovar, L.A. 336–8, 340, 343, 352 Sánchez Pérez, A. 180 Sánchez, J.J. 19 Sapir, E. 293 Sarkozy, N. 291 Sarti, L. 249 Sauvignon 181 Schäf f ler, H. 57 Schäf fner, C. 178 Schärer, R. 388 Schmied, J. 57 Schneider, A. 496 Schneider, J. 266, 275 Schön, D.A. 366, 426 Schütz 247 Scollon, R. 16 Scollon, S. 16 Scribner, S. 16 Seelye, H.N. 337–8, 348–50, 353, 355 Selinker, L. 140 Sercu, L. 269 Shulman, L.S. 378 Siemens, G. 221 Skinner, B.F. 138 Skopinskaja, L. 269 Smith, K. 485 Snell-Hornby, M. 145 Spitzberg, B.H. 336–40, 343, 352 St Onge, R. 492 St Onge, S. 492

Starkey, H. 269 Starosta, W.J. 336–40, 346, 352 Steiner, E. 478 Stenhouse, L. 366 Stenson, N. 321, 328 Storch, N. 185 Street, B. 16, 19 Svensson, P. 269 Swain, M. 78, 294 Swales, J. 17 Talamo, A. 245, 267 Tapscott, D. 292 Taylor, C. 119, 158, 164, 167, 169 Terwell 389 Texler, S. 222–3, 231–2 Thomas, J. 514 Thompson, J. 247, 263 Thorne, S.L. 271, 275 Tomaszkiewicz, T. 121, 165, 168 Torop, P. 141–2 Torsani, S. 219–20 Toury, G. 52, 177 Trim, J.L.M. 74, 390 Troncarelli, D. 228–9 Tumolo, C.H.S. 442 Turbee, C.L. 266 Tymoczko, M. 38 Uí Dhónaill 328 Ushioda, E. 249, 410 Vagnozzi, M. 232 Valdeón, R. 38, 51–2 Van de Poel, M. 118, 126 Van Ek, J. 294 Van Patten, B. 179 Vanderplank, R. 118, 156–7 Varantola, K. 101–2 Vargas, A. 367 Vaughan, N. 292, 301

534 Venuti, L. 37–8, 50–1, 56 Villanueva, M.L. 180 Virilio, P. 437 Voller, P. 390, 399 Von der Emde, S. 266, 275 Vygotsky, L.S. 245, 271, 273, 389 Wallace, C. 19 Walsh, S. 427 Warschauer, M. 266 Webb, S. 157 Weigel, V.B. 299–300 Weinreich, U. 139 Weissberg, B. 33 Weller 181 Wenger, E. 300 Whitaker, P. 416–17 Whorf, B.L. 293 Wickersham, L.E. 292

Index of Names Widdowson, H.G. 180 Williams, A.D. 292 Williams, J.N. 118 Willing 436 Winer, D. 242–3 Woodill, G. 220 Woozley 425, 436 Wray, A. 167–8 Yallop, C. 478 Yee, N. 269 Yin, R.K. 404 Yllera, A. 203 Zabalbeascoa, P. 126 Zarate, G. 270, 294, 335, 350 Zavala, V. 16, 19 Zilberdik, N.J. 55 Zuckerberg, M. 224

Index of Terms

American Association of School Librarians (AASL) 223 Ab initio 176, 183, 223, 293, 405, 481, 487, 489, 502 Accent 411, 413 Action research approach 394–5 Activity Theory 271, 273, 275, 279–80, 526 Activity Theory System 274 Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) 265, 273 Adquisición Numérica y Televisualización de Imágenes Organizadas en Páginas de Escritura (ANTIOPE) 211 Af fordances 271–2, 283 Africa 225 African 33, 55, 490 African-Arabians 33 Francophone Africa 49, 490 Ndebele 49 North Africa 522 South Africa 49, 66–7, 255 Zulu 49 America, United States of 37–8, 41, 45–6, 50, 199, 201 American 37–40, 45, 60, 63, 149, 151, 160–2, 165–6, 168, 201, 224 American English 335 Anglo-American 6, 38, 40, 43, 47, 50, 56 Harvard University 224, 481 Hopi 293 Latin-America 16 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 298

Native American 293 North American 225, 344 Philadelphia 37 South America 225 Anaphoric/exophoric references 472, 477–8 Anglicisms 48, 61–6 Anglification 37, 47, 64–7 Anglophone 37, 40–2, 46–7, 60, 63, 157, 162, 325, 330, 507–8, 510 Non-anglophone 58, 66, 329 Application Programming Interfaces (API) 224 Arabic 29–33, 42, 484 Arabians 33 Arabization 31 Argentina 16 Armenian 29 Army method 425 Asia 28, 225 Asian 55, 483–4, 490 Assessment for Learning (AfL) 398 Audiolingual Method 138, 425 Audiovisual interaction 155 Audiovisual dialogue 120, 125, 155–9, 162–5, 167–8, 170 Audiovisual genre 125, 157 Audiovisual input 117–19, 124–7, 129–31, 155–7, 165, 170 Audiovisual language 155, 164, 169, 170 Audiovisual productions/products 47, 119, 159, 165, 168–9 Audiovisual text 120, 122, 131

536 Audiovisual translation 2, 117–18, 131, 155 Audiovisual unit 488 Australia 225, 481, 483–4, 486, 490 Armidale 484–6, 490 Australian 483–5, 490–1 Brisbane 484 New South Wales (NSW) 484, 486, 489, 490 University of New England (UNE) 481–96 New England Model 482, 485–7, 492 Queensland 483–4 James Cook University of Queensland 489 Sydney 484, 486, 488, 490 University of Sydney 484 White Australia Policy 483 Authentic language 477 Autonomous (language) learning 2, 3, 6, 74–6, 319, 379, 382, 385–6, 389, 391, 394, 396–9, 438, 445 Autonomous (language) teaching 6, 175, 179, 182–5, 190–2, 300, 385–6, 389–99, 430, 445–6, 464, 471, 475 Autonomous translation 350 Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning 73 Learner autonomy 7–9, 81–2, 86, 88–9, 385, 423, 430–1, 437 Personal autonomy 339 Translation, technology and autonomy 183, 185–6 Azerbaijan 31 Azeri 31 Turk-Azeri 31 Uromieh 31 Babbel 228–9 Banking method 428

Index of Terms Behaviourism 138 Behaviourist 4, 139 Behaviourist learning theory 74 Behaviourist theory 138–40 Behaviouristic approach 297 Belgium 118, 211, 503 Blackboard 188, 414, 416, 488, 492–3 Blended learning 5, 292, 299 Bilingual language learning 446 Bilingual context 441, 446, 464 Bilingual first language acquisition 513 Bilingual journalists 52 Bilingual parallel bilingual corpora 449 Bilingual population 42 Bilingual programme 467 Bilingual schools 3, 467–8, 472 Bilingual speaker/people 30, 139, 513–15, 518 Bilingual status xx Bilingual terminology resources 463 Bilingual university/campus 1, 500, 503, 505 Bilingual/monolingual dictionary 99, 100–5, 107, 109, 188, 443–4, 448, 458 Masters in Bilingualism 468, 472 BliNQ Media 228 Blogs 5, 22–5, 43, 224, 232–5, 241–7, 253–5, 278, 298, 365 Bopomofo 29, 32 Britain 38, 45–6, 50, 148 British 49, 63, 166, 291, 468 British Isles 49 British National Corpus 49, 162 Busuu 228–9 Cambridge and Nottingham Spoken Business English Corpus (CANBEC) 427

Index of Terms China 32 Chinese 29–30, 32–3, 42, 484 Hanzi 29 Mandarin 29 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) 423–4, 426–7, 432, 434–6, 468 Cognitive processes 12–13, 18, 176, 366, 378 Cognitive approach 2, 15–16, 425 Cognitive presence 301–2 Cognitive psychological perspective 12, 20, 340, 354 Cognitive psychology 13, 340, 354 Individual-cognitive-organizational 76, 88–9 Colloquialisms 60, 62 Comenius 3 Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL) 6, 73, 82–7, 89–90, 106, 143, 233, 276, 295, 387–8, 403, 436–7, 441–2, 444–5 Communicative activity 84, 469 Communicative Approach (CA) 2, 96, 175, 423, 425–6, 428, 430, 435, 437 Communicative Competence (CC) 168, 269, 292, 294, 296, 298, 301, 333, 335, 350, 388, 431–2, 441, 468, 469 Communicative language competence 97, 103, 106, 109, 143, 441 Communicative (language) teaching 348, 423–4, 426–7, 432, 434–6, 468 Intercultural communication 33–6, 338, 340, 344 Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) 292, 294–9, 301, 303, 305, 312, 333, 335, 338–9, 350, 352, 388

537 Intercultural communicative speakers 295 Teaching competence 363, 365 Translation competence 97 Communities of Practice (CoPs) 299–302 Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL) 273 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) 4, 5, 273, 297–8, 311 Conditionalized knowledge 299–300, 308, 310 Connectivism 221 Content-and-Language-Integrated Learning (CLIL) 468, 479, 526 Corpus-based translation research 60 Creative teaching 398 Critical comprehension 20, 27 Critical reading 26 Cultural awareness 147, 344–5, 393 Critical cultural awareness 295, 349 Intercultural awareness 5, 86, 265, 269–72, 275–6, 280, 283–4, 344, 526 Critical Literacies 6, 522 Cultural competence 293–4, 305, 333 Cross-cultural competence 295, 335 Intercultural competence 335 Descriptive models 336 Developmental models 336, 341, 354 Multicultural competence 295 Socio-cultural competence 26, 269, 295, 335 Trans-cultural competence 295 Cultura Project 298 Denmark 39, 41, 43–6, 57, 255 Danish 39–40, 42–50, 53–6, 58–9, 61–6, 76 Danish National Centre for Social Research 46

538 Dansk Biblioteks-Center (DBC) 41, 43–4 Deep learning 299, 301, 308, 310–11 Democratization 73 Dialect 22, 24–5, 30, 199, 322–5, 328, 406, 414 Dialogical communication 431 Direct Method 2, 176, 495 Discourse immediacy 164–7, 170 Discussion forums 22, 292, 298–9, 301–9, 311–12 Distance education/learning 3, 481–3, 485–6 Handbook of Distance Education 481 Open and Distance Learning (ODL) 482 Dolphin 232 Domestication 37–40, 52 Dual coding 157 Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) 275–6, 525 Educastur 22, 24–5 Elcastellano 22, 24 E-learning 219–21, 234, 237, 253, 523 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) 467 English as a Second Language (ESL) 56, 344, 468 English for Specific Purposes (ESP) 441–2, 445, 465–6, 522 English-Slovenian 463, 465 Erasmus 3, 235, 257, 270, 276, 310, 503 Essentialist approach 13 Estonia 255 Europe 1, 51, 66, 199, 200, 295, 335, 344, 430, 437, 483, 490 Council of Europe 73–4, 82, 84, 86–7, 90, 233, 294–5, 387, 434, 524 Language policy division 294 Linguistic Division Policy 291

Index of Terms European 1, 49, 64, 137, 170, 199, 291, 430, 437, 484, 487, 490 European Commission 39, 235 European Language Portfolio (ELP) 82–3, 86–7, 387, 392–3, 398 European Union 3 EU Member States 430 Indo-European 429 Eurostat 429 Eurostudent 430 Evrokorpus 449 Evroterm-Multilingual Terminology-Database 449 Expansive Learning 275 Experimental approach 366 Explicative translation 176 Facebook 219–29, 231, 233, 235, 237–8, 249, 254 First language acquisition 138, 513 Foreign Language Learning (FLL) 25, 73, 78, 271, 298, 429–30, 441–2, 444–5 Foreignization 6, 37–40, 47 Foreignizing 37–40, 50, 67 Formative assessment 385, 393, 398 Formulacity 167 Forum Theatre 434 Fraincis trí Ghaeilge 499–518 France 38, 41, 81, 83, 255, 493–4, 503 Francophone 487, 503, 509 French 3, 21, 24, 30–3, 37, 40, 42–5, 49, 55, 80–1, 100–1, 209, 211, 291–2, 298, 300–1, 303–7, 310–11, 481–5, 487–94, 496, 499–515, 517–18 Gaeilge curriculum 430 Gaelscoileanna 324, 500 Gaeltacht xx, 324–8, 412, 414, 416, 500 Connemara Gaeltacht 500 Genrelets 169

Index of Terms Germany 38, 41 German 31, 42–5, 48–9, 54–5, 65, 80–1, 291, 484 Germanic-speaking 44, 48 Germanisms 65 Global language 3 Glossaries 3, 202, 441, 443, 445–6, 448, 454, 456, 460 Google 20, 24, 50, 252, 259–60, 437, 456, 458 Gr@el 11 GradIreland 437 Grammar-translation 2, 176, 436, 495 Grammar-Translation Method 137–8 Great Divide, The 16 Greek 29, 50, 137, 198, 424, 484 Greenland 50 Head Up Displays (HUDs) 269 Hebrew 55 Heuristic skills 367, 444–5 High-order learning 301 Hindi 29, 50 Humanistic Approach 138 Image theatre 431, 433 Imageability 123–5, 131 Immigration 291, 430 Information technology (IT) xx, 4, 482, 488, 496–7, 525 In-moment learning 427 Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT) 433, 524 Intercultural foreign language communication 275 Intercultural Foreign Language Education (IFLE) 333, 335–7, 340, 346–7, 349, 355–7 Intercultural sensitivity 340, 342, 295, 298 Developmental model of 340, 345 Ethnocentric/ethnorelative stages 340–2

539 Interior translation 176 International Business and Languages (IBL) 275–6 International Conference on Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning xx, 1 Inuit language 50, 209 Invisibility 37, 51, 53, 59 Iran 32, 52 Iranian 31 IRIB 51 Khomeini 31 Kurdish 31 Tehran 31–2, 51 Iraq 31 Ireland xix, xx, 1, 4, 5, 83, 275, 321, 327, 330, 385–6, 429–30, 433, 437, 500 Irish 1, 3–4, 6, 47, 83, 85, 275–6, 278–9, 283, 303, 310, 317–25, 329–30, 387, 409, 411–15, 429–30, 437–8, 499–509, 513–18 Irish Research Association for Applied Linguistics (IRAAL) 386, 522 Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (IRCHSS) xvii National University of Ireland, Galway xx, xvii, 1, 385–6, 499– 500, 502, 509, 521 Trinity College Dublin 387, 398 University of Limerick 301 Islamic 31, 33 Italy 64, 147, 150, 276 Bologna 46 Bologna Declaration 445 Italian 31, 37, 42, 45, 50, 64, 127–30, 132, 147–50, 156, 170, 200, 226, 230, 265, 275–9, 282–4 Rome 198–9 University of Venice 275

540 I-Vocalize 494 Japanese 42, 45, 54 Just Landed 22 Kitchen languages 66 Korpus DK 49 Languaculture 344 Latin 1, 28, 31–4, 137, 199, 212 Leaving Certificate 83, 85, 386–7, 437, 502 Lexicon 48–9, 99, 104–5, 107, 109, 123, 156, 175, 192, 197–9, 202–5, 210, 212, 473, 476–7 Lifelong learning 219, 445–6 Linguistic competence xix, 12–13, 18, 26, 84–5, 140, 294, 441, 468, 506 linkedIn 222 Literacitat Crítica 11, 16 Literal transfer 121, 126 Lithuania 39 Lithuanian 39, 56 Livemocha 222, 228–31, 237 Loanwords 48, 60–2, 141 Malta 156 Massive Multiplayer Online Games (MMOs) 5 Media 46–7, 52–3, 57, 66–7, 124, 150, 156, 165, 199, 202, 212, 220, 223, 228, 235, 243, 348, 427–8, 525 Social media 291–2, 299, 524 Metacognition 299–300, 308, 310, 390 Metacognitive capacity development 399 Mexico 16 Microsoft Word 494 Minor languages 37–8, 41, 47–50, 53–4, 58, 64, 66, 323, 329 Mobile-assisted learning 5

Index of Terms Modern Languages 1, 81, 84, 137, 143, 212, 385–6, 393, 482, 489 Monolingual principle 2 Monosemiotic/polysemiotic 53, 55 Moodle 188, 253–5, 260–1, 298, 488 Morocco 255 Moroccan 29, 31 Morphology 59, 123, 137 MUD Object Oriented (MOOs) 266 Multiple identity theory 339 My Happy Planet 228–9 MySpace 222, 235 Naming process 423, 431 National Digital Learning Resources (NDLR) 5 National Plan for Scientific Research 11 Natural Approach 139 Negative transfer 139 Netherlands 41, 44, 118, 430 Netlog 222, 228 Network-based language teaching 311 New Literacy Studies (NLS) 11, 16 Ning 219, 222, 231–5, 237 Northern Tablelands 484 Online dictionaries 103–4, 107, 454, 456 Online discussion forums 292, 303, 308 Online language learning 75 Omission/redundancy reduction 210, 212–13, 425 Oral Language Archive (OLA) 298 Orthography 59 Overgeneralization 425 Overt/covert translations 51–3 Palabea 228–9 Perceptibility 123–5, 130–1 Perceptual salience 117, 122–9, 131–2 Pedagogical translation (PT) 175–88, 191–2, 526

Index of Terms Persian 31–2, 198 Parsee 29 Peru 16, 431 Poland 255 Plurilingual competence 295 Phonology 59 Phraseology 59 Positive/negative reinforcement 138, 424 Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) 386–7, 392–3, 396 Pragmatics 59, 101, 119, 123, 128, 143, 145, 175, 192, 477 Pragmatic variation 12 Predictability 164, 167, 169, 170 Primary responses 432, 434 Problem-based learning 300 Process Approach (PA) framework 351 Process Drama 424, 431, 432 PROEL 22 Professional Diploma in Education (PDE) 386 Pseudo-communication 436–7 Pseudo-originals 52 Pseudo-translations 52 Psycholinguistics 4, 14, 18 Qualitative contrast 128 Quran 32–3 Suras 32 Raidió na Gaeltacha 328, 411 Realia 279 Ref lective learning 403–4, 406, 416–18 Relay language 41, 66 Relay translation 54–5 Review of Quality Assurance in Irish Universities 438 Russia 4, 323 Moscow 317–32 Russian 4, 29, 38, 42, 45, 48, 273, 317, 319, 322, 324

541 Sahara 30 Scandinavia 60 Norwegian 43–5, 55 Scandinavian 40, 44, 118 Scandinavian Translation Studies 60 Sweden 60, 63, 255 Swedish 40, 43–5, 55, 58, 60–3 School knowledge/action knowledge 77 Second language acquisition (SLA) 78, 117–18, 122, 131, 138–9, 155, 157–9, 163, 165, 167, 169, 170, 354, 425, 513 Second Life (SL) 5, 265–7, 269, 272, 275–9, 283 Self-assessment 82, 86, 87–90, 363, 372, 375, 378, 390–1, 393 Semantic and collocational patterns 62 Semantics 59, 151, 211, 441, 477 Semantic variation 24 Silent phase 433 Situated and ecological approach 13 Situation model 26 Slavonic 55 Slovenia 3 Slovenian 446, 449, 453, 458, 463 Social identity 15, 389, 398 Social network 5, 219, 221–5, 228–38, 302, 305 socialGO 232 Social-interactive-collaborative 76, 89 Spain 6, 16, 21–2, 24, 30, 38, 199, 201, 203, 211, 310, 467–8 Barcelona 6, 16, 36, 193, 214, 364–5 University of Barcelona 364 Catalan 11, 20–3, 32, 37 Sabadell 32 Ceuta 29 Madrid 24 Autonomous University of Madrid 16

542 Spanish 11–12, 16–17, 20, 21–4, 26–8, 30, 32–3, 35, 38, 42, 45, 96–7, 101, 103, 106, 109, 200–1, 204, 210–11, 364, 371, 434, 467–8, 473–5, 478, 521, 523 Spanish as a Foreign Language (SFL) 26–9, 33–4, 364–5, 371–2, 523 University of Valladolid 468, 472 University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona 16 Spoken Business English (SBE) 427–8 Spontaneous acquisition 156, 170 Standard English (SE) 159, 164 Subtitling/dubbing 39–40, 46–7, 51, 53, 55–6, 117–22, 124–32, 147, 155–7, 170, 492 Sulis 188, 301 Switzerland 211, 430 Swiss European Language Portfolio 83 T/O novels 60–1 Taiwan 30 Kaohsiung 29 Taiwanese 29 Teacher talk (TT) 426 Teaching Council of Ireland 386 Teaching Portfolio 363, 368, 392 Teacher’s Ref lective Portfolio 364, 371 TEANGA 386, 522 Technical terminology acquisition 442, 464 Tenor contextual variable 467, 471 TG4 328, 414 Theoretical model 26, 333, 349, 351 Theory of Contrastive Analysis 139 Theory of Signs 141 Tunisia 29–30 Tamerza 30 Tozeur 31 Translation from English (TE) 37, 46, 63

Index of Terms Translation Studies 57, 60, 96, 141–2, 151, 175, 176, 182 Translationese 57–63, 66 Trilingual 37, 503 Turkey 437 Turkish 31 Twiducate 232 Twitter 220 UK 41, 45, 83, 482, 486 England 255 UK Open University Planning Committee 486 Ukrainian 29 UNESCO 41, 45, 486 United Nations (UN) 30 Universal grammar 138 Up/downstream translation 39 Vietnamese 484 Virtual learning environments (VLE) 5, 188, 219, 298, 301, 308, 493 Virtual Worlds (VWs) 5, 265–72, 275, 279, 283, 477, 526 Vocabulary acquisition 441–2, 477 Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) 266, 477 Web 2.0 5, 220–2, 228, 237, 241, 255, 259, 298, 311–12 Weblog 220 Webquest 22, 188 Wiki 5, 188, 220, 277, 298, 495 Wikipedia 23–4, 222, 235 Wordpress 253–4, 260–1, 364, 371 YouTube 224, 493 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 389

Intercultural Studies and Foreign Language Learning series editors Arnd Witte and Theo Harden Learning a foreign language facilitates the most intimate access one can get to the culture and society of another language community. The pro cess of learning a foreign language always involves intercultural levels of engagement between the languages and cultures concerned. This process is also a long and arduous one which involves an enormous variety of factors. These factors are located on individual, socio-cultural and linguistic planes. They engage in a complex interplay between any elements of these more general planes and the concrete learning process of the learner. The series Intercultural Studies and Foreign Language Learning provides a forum for publishing research in this area. It publishes monographs, edited collections and volumes of primary material on any aspect of intercultural research. The series is not limited to the field of applied lin guistics but also includes relevant research from linguistic anthropology, language learning pedagogy, translation studies and language philosophy. The series editors are Dr Arnd Witte, who can be contacted by emailing [email protected], and Prof Theo Harden, [email protected].

Vol. 1

Freda Mishan and Angela Chambers (eds): Perspectives on Language Learning Materials Development. 294 pages. 2010. isbn: 978-3-03911-863-2

Vol. 2

Valerie Pellatt, Kate Griffiths and Shao-Chuan Wu (eds): Teaching and Testing Interpreting and Translating. 343 pages. 2010. isbn: 978-3-03911-892-2

Vol. 3 Vol 4 Vol. 5 Vol. 6

Arnd Witte, Theo Harden and Alessandra Ramos de Oliveira Harden (eds): Translation in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 424 pages. 2009. isbn: 978-3-03911-897-7 Kathleen Shields and Michael Clarke (eds): Translating Emotion: Studies in Transformation and Renewal Between Languages. 172 pages. 2011. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0115-2 Jane Fenoulhet and Cristina Ros i Solé (eds): Mobility and Localisation in Language Learning: A View from Languages of the Wider World. 253 pages. 2011. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0150-3

Anissa Daoudi: Cultural and Linguistic Encounters: Arab EFL Learners Encoding and Decoding Idioms. 225 pages. 2011. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0193-0

Vol. 7

Michael Hager: Culture, Psychology, and Language Learning. 358 pages. 2011. isbn: 978-3-0343-0197-8

Vol. 8

Stephanie Houghton and Etsuko Yamada: Developing Criticality in Practice Through Foreign Language Education. 200 pages. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0278-4

Vol. 9

Ana Gonçalves Matos: Literary Texts and Intercultural Learning: Exploring New Directions. 215 pages. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0720-8

Vol. 10 Arnd Witte and Theo Harden (eds): Intercultural Competence: Concepts, Challenges, Evaluations. 499 pages. 2011. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0793-2 Vol. 11

Lisa Foran (ed.): Translation and Philosophy. 196 pages. 2012. ISBN: 978-3-0343-0794-9

Vol. 12 Pilar Alderete-Díez, Laura Incalcaterra McLoughlin, Labhaoise Ní Dhonnchadha and Dorothy Ní Uigín (eds): Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning. 564 pages. 2012. isbn 978-3-0343-0812-0

Translation, Technology and Autonomy in Language Teaching and Le

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