Unit 3A - Course Notes

International Diploma in Occupational Safety and Health Unit 3

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International Diploma - Course Contents Unit 3 Promoting a Positive Health and Safety Culture in the Workplace Element 3A – Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture

3A1

Encouraging Positive Behaviour

3A2

Improving Communication

3A3

Target Setting and Continuous Improvement

3A4

Effective Health and Safety Training

3A5

Element 3B – Developing the Business Case for Health and Safety Principles of Business

3B1

Strategies for Managing Risk

3B2

Business Risks

3B3

Risk Control

3B4

Techniques for Identifying Risks to a Business

3B5

Problem Solving Techniques

3B6

Gaining Senior Management Commitment

3B7

Constructing a Business Case for Health and Safety

3B8

Writing Business Reports

3B9

Presenting the Business Case to Senior Management

3B10

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©British Safety Council

BSC International Diploma | Unit 3 Element 3A: Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture

C O N T E N T S Study Unit

Title

Page

3A1

Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture

NATURE OF HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE ....................................................................................................... 3 DEFINING A POSITIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE ....................................................................................................... 3 HEALTH AND SAFETY CLIMATE ................................................................................................................................... 3 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CULTURES ............................................................................................................................ 3 DETERMINING AN ORGANISATION’S HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE............................................................... 5 INDICATORS OF CULTURE ......................................................................................................................................... 6 FACTORS COMMON TO POSITIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE.......................................................................................... 7 OBSERVED AND UNDERLYING INDICATORS ..................................................................................................................... 7 CORRELATION BETWEEN CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE IN HEALTH AND SAFETY......................................................................... 8 SAFETY CLIMATE.................................................................................................................................................. 10 DEVELOPING A POSITIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE............................................................................... 13 FACTORS THAT MAY PROMOTE A POSITIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE ............................................................................ 13 FACTORS THAT MAY PROMOTE A NEGATIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE ........................................................................... 14 IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR .................................................................................... 16 EVIDENCE OF COMMITMENT BY PERSONNEL AT ALL LEVELS IN THE ORGANISATION .................................................................. 17 LACK OF BLAME CULTURE ....................................................................................................................................... 17 EFFECTING CHANGE .............................................................................................................................................. 17 BENEFITS OF A POSITIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE ............................................................................... 20 REDUCTION IN LOSSES .......................................................................................................................................... 21 IMPROVED WORKFORCE MORALE .............................................................................................................................. 22 REDUCED NEED FOR MANAGEMENT CONTROL OF EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOUR .............................................................................. 22 GREATER EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION.......................................................................................................................... 22 BARRIERS TO A POSITIVE HEALTH AND SAFETY CULTURE .............................................................................. 23 HUMAN FACTORS ................................................................................................................................................. 23 INAPPROPRIATE HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 25 CONDITION OF THE WORKPLACE AND WORKING AREAS ................................................................................................... 25 PERCEPTION OF JOB SECURITY................................................................................................................................. 25 INAPPROPRIATE PAY AND REWARD SCHEMES ................................................................................................................ 26 LACK OF INFORMATION .......................................................................................................................................... 26 LACK OF CONSULTATION ........................................................................................................................................ 26 MANAGEMENT RESISTANCE ..................................................................................................................................... 27 PERCEPTION OF BENEFITS TO INDIVIDUAL/COMPANY ...................................................................................................... 28 LACK OF RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................. 28 IGNORANCE OF LEGAL REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................................................ 28 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE ........................................................................................................................................ 28

BSC International Diploma – Element 3A | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture

BSC Awards International Diploma | Unit 3 Element 3A | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture Study Unit 3A1 | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture Learning Outcome When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:

➢

Determine an organisation’s health and safety culture.

➢

Explain the main benefits of a positive health and safety culture.

➢

Explain the main barriers to a positive health and safety culture.

Unit 1:

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Nature of Health and Safety Culture Defining a Positive Health and Safety Culture There are many definitions for health and safety culture:

"A system of shared values and beliefs about the importance of health and safety in the workplace." "An attitude to safety which pervades the whole organisation from top to bottom and has become a norm of behaviour for every member of staff from the board of directors down to the newest juniors." The following definition is given by the UK’s Health and Safety Commission (HSC) Advisory Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations:

"The safety culture of an organisation is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behaviour that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an organisation's health and safety management. Organisations with a positive safety culture are characterised by communications founded on mutual trust, by shared perceptions of the importance of safety and by confidence in the efficacy of preventive measures."

Health and Safety Climate The term “Safety Climate” has often been used interchangeably with “Safety Culture”. The safety climate of an organisation can be described as a picture of an organisation’s safety management as seen through the eyes of its workforce. It is a measure of a person’s views, perceptions, attitudes and beliefs of how well the company is performing at any given time and might consider such aspects as the degree of leadership and commitment provided by senior management or the extent to which the person feels they have been consulted on new projects. These views are often obtained through the use of surveys and questionnaires (see climate survey tools later in this chapter) and, when collected and evaluated, can be used to represent the collective beliefs and attitudes of the workforce (the safety climate) and provide management with a snapshot of the perceived culture of the organisation at that point in time. The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) in the UK have examined the fundamental differences between climate and culture:

“The distinction between ‘climate’ and ‘culture’ is significant. The former embraces perceptions, attitudes and beliefs about risk and safety, is typically measured using questionnaires, and provides a ‘snapshot’ of the current state of safety; the latter is more complex and long-lasting, and reflects more fundamental values.” The determination of a safety climate, supplemented by observations from the workplace considering a range of other cultural indicators, can be used to raise awareness of health and safety and improve an organisation’s safety culture.

Positive and Negative Cultures The important thing to remember about a safety culture is that it can be 'positive' or 'negative'.

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A company with a negative or poor safety culture will struggle to improve safety or prevent accidents even if they have excellent written procedures and policies and state-of-the-art safety equipment. The reason for this really comes down to people, their attitudes to safety and how this attitude is nurtured.

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Determining an Organisation’s Health and Safety Culture The culture of an organisation refers to the deep-seated values underpinning the whole organisation – both the way in which work is carried out (the formal systems of management and working practices) and also the informal interactions between people and codes of social behaviour, such as the accepted customs, conduct, dress codes and language, etc. used in the organisation. It is increasingly being recognised, in management thinking, that the culture is fundamental to the success or failure of organisations in meeting their goals. Organisational culture is not something that is written down or easily stated. Rather, it is an intangible mixture of formal and informal rules, relationships, values, customs, etc. which, taken together, describe the distinctive ‘feel’ of the organisation. On one level, this is concerned with how the organisation gets things done – its own particular way of dealing with work and other events which happen. On another level, it reflects the way in which people involved with the organisation (its management and employees, outside organisations, customers, etc.) perceive it – for example, how friendly it is, how well it meets their needs, how they like dealing with it, etc. There are a number of characteristics from which it is possible to develop an understanding of an organisation’s culture. The main ones are set out below. As you read through this list, think about any organisations you know, either in a work capacity or through having dealings with them (for example, complaining about a problem), and consider how different they are. 

The organisation’s goals – particularly its mission statement – and the extent to which they are clear, communicated to and accepted by all levels of the organisation.

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The dominant patterns of behaviour applying to work and social interactions within the organisation, and between the organisation and people outside – in respect of both what is expected and whether actual behaviour lives up to these expectations.

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The distribution of authority and decision-making through the organisation – whether it is concentrated at the top or spread downwards to allow managers at section or shopfloor level to make their own decision, and to what extent the views of employees are taken into account.

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The structure of the organisation, which is shown by organisation charts and is closely related to the distribution of authority – how formal and rigid it is, whether there are lots of levels, or if it is open with few levels.

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The nature of leadership, which refers to the way in which power and authority is exercised – whether it is authoritarian or democratic.

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The values of the organisation – particularly in terms of its responsiveness to the needs and aspirations of its own staff.

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The entrepreneurial spirit of the organisation, as revealed by the degree of enterprise, innovation, competitiveness, flexibility and drive for excellence of the organisation.

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Its receptiveness to change – particularly whether it is proactive (anticipating and planning for change) or reactive (coping with change as and when it arises).

These are quite general features of organisations, but we can make them more specific by considering the concept of a health and safety culture.

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The UK guidance note, HSG65 (Successful Health and Safety Management) constitutes the Health and Safety Executive’s basic guide on how organisations should manage occupational safety and health. It defines a safety culture as “the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies and patterns of behaviour that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an organisation’s health and safety management”. Therefore, it is about the same intangible mixture of formal and informal rules, relationships, values, customs, etc. which, taken together, describe the distinctive approach towards health and safety in the organisation. We can think of it as both how it deals with health and safety and the way in which employees think about it. We could look again at some of the organisational characteristics listed above and consider them from the point of view of health and safety (and you should think of how any organisation you are familiar with might be described in this way). 

The extent to which the organisation’s health and safety policy is clear, communicated to and accepted by all levels of the organisation.



The dominant patterns of behaviour applying to health and safety – in respect of both what is expected and whether actual behaviour lives up to these expectations, both in formal work situations and in informal situations.



The extent to which employees are actively involved in health and safety decision-making.

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The values of the organisation – in terms of its responsiveness to health and safety needs, and of the attitudes of its own staff.

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The priority given to health and safety in the organisation, and the drive and commitment shown by management.



Whether the organisation is proactive in anticipating and planning for health and safety, or reactive in coping with events as and when they occur.

Many of these features are intangible and not easy to identify and measure exactly – we tend to use general descriptions such as there is a strong or positive health and safety culture in one organisation, but it is poor or negative in another. However, it is possible to draw up a picture of the culture by looking at certain indicators – for example, accident rates or adherence to safety rules. It is also possible to influence the culture by changing the general characteristics listed above – to make it more positive or, possibly, to make it more negative. We shall consider these issues in detail later.

Indicators of Culture The culture of an organisation refers to objective characteristics that can be observed or inferred by an outside observer. For example, the structure of the organisation and the roles and rules can be observed. The deep-seated values of the organisation, e.g. a respect for tradition or service to customers can be inferred by an outsider. There are a number of indicators of safety culture within an organisation. Some examples include: 

The registration of visitors.



The presence of warning notices throughout the premises or site.



The wearing of PPE.



Good or bad staff relationships.



Accident figures.

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

Statements made by employees, e.g. "That's not my responsibility" (negative culture).

The climate of an organisation, however, is more subjective. This is because it is the way people within the organisation perceive its structures, roles, rules and authority, etc. For example, do individuals feel like a valued member of the organisation or do they just feel like a number? The insider's view is more difficult to obtain and is usually only discovered by indepth research.

Factors Common to Positive Health and Safety Culture HSG48 In the UK, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has produced a useful publication, Reducing Error and Influencing Behaviour (HSG48). It identifies the following factors that have been found to be associated with good safety performance: 

Effective communication – a high level of communication between, and within, levels of the organisation, and comprehensive formal and informal communication.



Learning organisation – the organisation continually improves its own methods and learns from mistakes.

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Health and safety focus – a strong focus by everyone in the organisation on health and safety.

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Committed resources – time, money and staff devoted to health and safety showing strong evidence of commitment.

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Participation – staff at different levels in the organisation identify hazards, suggest control measures, provide feedback and feel that they 'own' safety procedures.



Management visibility – senior managers show commitment and are visible 'on the shop-floor'.

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Balance of productivity and safety – the need for production is properly balanced against health and safety so that the latter is not ignored.

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High quality training – training is properly managed, the content is well chosen and the quality is high. Counting the hours spent on training is not enough.

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Job satisfaction – confidence, trust and recognition of good safety performance.

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Workforce composition – a significant proportion of older, more experienced and socially stable workers. This group tend to have fewer accidents, lower absenteeism and lower turnover rates.

Observed and Underlying Indicators Cultural indicators can also considered as “clues” or “evidence” that when evaluated can help to establish the type of culture an organisation has. Rarely will one individual indicator provide enough information to establish the culture. Observed indicators are those acts or conditions that are seen when carrying out an inspection of the facilities and processes. Observed indicators must actually be seen and would either be positive observed indicators (such as staff wearing correct Personal Protection or machines well maintained and fitted with correct guarding, or negative observed indicators (such as untidy workplace, broken machinery or staff behaving badly). The observed indicators will help to form an opinion about the culture of the organisation.

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Underlying indicators are related to organisational performance or arrangements and can be useful to support or contradict the observed indicators. The identification of underlying indicators will require research of organisational performance, records and documentation and will again be positive or negative. Positive underlying indicators might include such things as low accident rates, low claims or enforcement actions and risk assessment programmes being fully implemented. Negative underlying indicators might refer to high staff turnover, poor training (or no training records) and high numbers of property damage incidents. Collectively these indicators will help to form an opinion about the type of culture that is present in the organisation.

Correlation between Culture and Performance in Health and Safety We shall start this subsection with another definition, this time from the Institution of Occupational Safety and Health. The health and safety culture of an organisation comprises “the characteristic shared attitudes, values, beliefs and practices of people at work concerning not only the magnitude of risks that they encounter but also the necessity, practicality, and effectiveness of preventive measures”. Whilst these are not easy to pin down, it is relatively easy to identify the relationship between these features and safety performance. When an experienced safety practitioner carries out a safety audit or inspection of a company, he/she can often gauge the standard of safety performance on a fairly superficial walk-round and the first impressions gained. An organisation with a positive health and safety culture will consist of competent people with strongly-held safety values which they put into practice. This will go through the whole organisation from top to bottom. It starts with a firm statement of policy and this policy will be reflected at all levels in both the attitudes of management and employees, and the working practices and safety measures applied. There will be clear determination to control hazards and risks, and to make the workplace a safe place for all concerned. By contrast, where there is a negative health and safety culture, management and staff are likely to adopt only the minimum safety arrangements necessary to comply with the law, and then only under duress, or even to ignore the requirements completely. This latter case is unusual, but many organisations do only approach health and safety in a very half-hearted way. Their performance may be characterised as not being concerned with hazards and risks, and there is an acceptance of danger in the workplace – altogether an unhealthy approach!

Level of Compliance with Rules and Procedures The basic principles of control over health and safety are the adoption of safe working practices and the application of various protective measures. Thus, working on a grinding machine may be made as safe as possible by, among other things, following the prescribed procedure for feeding items into the machine and always using the machine guard. The extent to which these rules and procedures are followed at all times is a good indicator of the attitudes towards health and safety in practice. It is all very well having agreed policies, but how these are actually implemented is the key factor. A high level of compliance would indicate that there is a positive health and safety culture. We could conclude that safety policy is clear and understood, that the dominant behaviour patterns revolve around safe working practices, and that health and safety is central to the values of the organisation. However, that is not necessarily the case. It may be that

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compliance is being strictly enforced against the will of employees – it is a management priority and the values are not shared by the workforce (who, perhaps, feel it is unnecessarily restrictive) – or it may be that workers themselves are more safety-conscious than management and are imposing their own codes of compliance in defiance, perhaps, of management demands to cut corners. Thus, compliance may not, of itself, indicate a strong health and safety culture, although it is a positive indicator. On the other hand, low levels of compliance would indicate a serious problem and one that demands investigation as to why policy is not being followed – by both management and employees. Monitoring compliance levels needs to be done with care. It can be achieved by looking at some of the reactive indicators discussed below, but is far better assessed by formal and informal checks. However, this requires management itself to have a commitment to health and safety, both to carry out checks and to react to problems identified. One particular difficulty with this is that where management action is based on numbers of reported breaches of procedures and practices, there may be a reluctance among lower management levels to report such events properly because it reflects badly on them. The role of safety representatives then becomes very important in providing an independent monitor.

Complaints About Working Conditions The level of problems reported to more senior management by supervisors, safety representatives and health and safety practitioners may be indicative either of the level of compliance with the rules and measures, or of the extent to which those rules and procedures are considered appropriate. Either way, a high level of complaints would be indicative of a poor health and safety culture.

Accidents The level of accidents in an organisation clearly has something to say about the state of health and safety within that organisation. Accident data is readily available – it has to be collected, by law, and is required as the basis of risk assessment – and statistical analysis can provide information about trends and comparisons with other, similar organisations. However, whilst a poor accident record may indicate a need to address particular safety issues, it does not necessarily mean that the health and safety culture is also poor. Similarly, the absence of accidents is not, on its own, a clear indicator of a positive culture. Accidents do happen. What is important is why they happen. Thus, accident reports need to be clear about the causes of accidents, not simply their outcomes in terms of injuries caused. In this case, then, near misses are just as important. If they show a regular pattern of similar causes, then that may indicate a cultural problem in that the causes are not being addressed. Accidents and their causes represent a learning opportunity for the organisation – to prevent it happening again. If that challenge is not being picked up, it may be because health and safety is not a sufficient priority. Other ways of analysing accident data may also indicate problems. It may be that a certain level of accidents is normal in an organisation or a particular type of work – not necessarily a high level, but an average of one or two incidents a month on, say, a large construction site. If this level is exceeded, then there may clearly be a problem. However, a lower level may also indicate a problem in that accidents may not be being reported. If there is a very low incidence of accidents in the workplace, it is important to know why. Many organisations have very low levels of risk (compare office work with, say, mining), and slack attitudes to safety may not necessarily result in accidents, or even near misses.

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Absenteeism and Sickness Rates Health and safety is not concerned solely with accidents, and relying on accident data to build a picture of an organisation’s health and safety culture may be very misleading. Health problems may also be caused by conditions at the workplace and the extent to which these are recognised and addressed may be an indicator of the strength of that culture. This is not an easy area in which to make clear judgments. Ill-health may take some time to become evident and it is not always obvious that it is caused by activities at the workplace. In addition, conditions which are made worse by the work situation, rather than caused by it, are not easy to spot. Monitoring absences and sickness rates is one way of gathering information about potential problems in this area. The information required is likely to be collected by the organisation for its human resource management function, and the identified causes of ill-health may provide indicators which point to health and safety problems. Certain problems may be readily identified where there are established links between ailments and particular types of work – for example, back problems among those required to undertake a lot of lifting or among keyboard operators (which these days includes most office workers). Other ailments which have been shown to be linked to the workplace in certain situations may also indicate a problem, such as stress, asthma, headaches, etc. Further, the incidence of common ailments among workers in similar situations would indicate a cause for concern. Again, it is not just the incidence of these types of problems which shows the state of the health and safety culture. It is also the willingness of management to monitor, investigate and take action where appropriate.

Staff Turnover A high staff turnover is a general indicator of problems in the workplace. There may be many reasons for this – poor pay, poor morale, lack of direction, lack of training, lack of opportunities for advancement, etc. Some of these may have implications for, or be a reflection of, the health and safety culture and, again, it is important that management is clear about the underlying causes and what they may imply for health and safety. Exit interviews are increasingly used by many organisations to identify why employees want to leave and the results from these may provide indicators of the state of health and safety in the organisation. For example, reasons such as excessive workloads or lack of training may indicate conditions which give rise to high levels of stress or a lack of appreciation and skills in respect of safety procedures. Low morale may also be of concern since this is often associated with an apathetic attitude towards safety.

Safety Climate We have already noted that the indicators of safety culture are many and various, and while it is possible to gauge a sense of culture from first impressions and hearsay, it is equally possible, and perhaps more accurate, to measure attitudes and values by more positive means. Attitude measurement methods used by sociologists and market researchers are invariably based on Likert or Guttman scales. These are survey questionnaires containing a battery of statements requiring responses which indicate agreement or disagreement. Respondents are asked to indicate to what extent or degree they agree or disagree with each statement, generally using a five-point scale which can then be coded to provide a score. High scores represent agreement and low scores disagreement.

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Likert and Guttman methods of measurement are fairly sophisticated and require some training in their interpretation to be of value to the layman. On the other hand, it is fairly easy to devise a straightforward questionnaire containing questions about general health and safety, the responses to which would give some idea of the safety culture within an organisation. To do this effectively the questionnaire must be carefully designed to avoid bias, and to obtain truthful answers confidentiality is necessary. However, when the survey is carried out properly, the results can reveal underlying anxieties and problems which are difficult to identify by other means. Care should be taken when carrying out these surveys to ensure that the very act of conducting the survey does not in itself create suspicion in the minds of employees or create additional unnecessary anxiety. Carried out on a regular basis, attitude surveys can identify trends and it is then possible to quantify how attitudes are changing.

HSE Climate Survey Tool Although not now supported, the HSE had previously developed a Health and Safety Climate Survey Tool to allow organisations to canvass the views of their employees on some key aspects of health and safety within their organisation. According to the HSE:

“The prime purpose of the tool is to encourage employee involvement in health and safety by seeking people’s views on some key aspects of health and safety in their organisation and then involving them in seeking improvements based on the information which emerges.” The tool consisted of: 

An employee questionnaire containing 71 statements.

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A manual describing the process for undertaking a survey using the questionnaire and taking the results forward.

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Software which allows organisations to customise the questionnaire, print it, analyse the results and print reports showing the results in graphical and tabular form.

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A software manual giving details of how to install and use the software.

The aim is that employers should: 

Select which parts of their organisation they want to survey.

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Collect information from employee groups using the questionnaire provided.

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Use the software provided to analyse the information.

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Explore the results and develop action plans with staff.

A benchmarking service was also available for those wanting to compare results with other organisations. The questionnaire involved people rating their responses on a scale from one to five from strongly disagree to strongly agree. It was designed to seek the views of managers, supervisors and the workforce as three discrete groups so that their results could be compared. The following factors underlie the structure: •

Organisational commitment and communication.

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Line management commitment.

•

Risk-taking behaviour and some contributing influences.

•

Personal role.

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•

Workmates’ influence.

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Competence.

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Supervisors’ role.

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Obstacles to safe behaviour.

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Permit-to-work systems.

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Reporting of accidents and near misses.

Measurement: 0 = Not at all

5 = Fully

EXAMPLE Site layout and tidiness

Personal protective equipment

Site Safety Radar Chart

Scores are plotted for each section and the points joined (shown by the dotted line). Toolkits are available on a subscription basis from Constructing Excellence (http://www.constructingexcellence.org.uk/resourcecentre/peoplezone/respect.jsp?level).

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Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture The organisation should develop a safety culture which supports proactive safety measures. In such a culture, limitations will be admitted and advice sought. Near misses will also be reported in order to help reduce the base of the accident triangle through corrective measures. Within a culture of fear, employees ‘close up’ and mistakes and limitations are hidden, often with tragic consequences. Management, however, has a responsibility to avoid the birth and development of such adverse situations and encourage people to be quite open and at ease.

Factors that May Promote a Positive Health and Safety Culture Management Commitment and Leadership The most important thing to remember about management commitment and leadership is to 'lead by example'. As soon as management undermines the safety standards in order to achieve increased productivity, or ignores an unsafe act, then they lose employee respect and trust and the whole safety culture of the organisation is threatened. For example, it is very difficult to chastise an employee for safety misconduct if management were condoning or turning a blind eye to safety non-conformances the day before. To coin a phrase, ’Behaviour breeds behaviour’. It is important to ensure that the behaviour is positive in order to produce positive results and a positive culture.

High Business Profile to Health and Safety A positive health and safety culture can be promoted by including safety in all business documents and meetings. This could mean that all newsletters, minutes of meetings, notices, advertisements, brochures, etc. include an appropriate reference to safety. It could simply be reference to the organisation's commitment to safety or, with respect to meetings, it could be an opportunity for any safety concerns to be raised. If safety is seen to be an integral part of the business then the profile of safety will be raised. Often employees think that safety is the concern of the Safety Team. By raising the profile, they will see that everyone has a role to play.

Provision of Information Following on from the above, it is really important to provide information about health and safety matters. This information could be in the form of posters, leaflets or in staff newsletters.

Involvement and Consultation It is vital to involve staff members in health and safety matters. There are a number of areas in which staff representatives or health and safety representatives can be actively involved: 

Risk assessments.

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Workplace inspections.

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Accident investigations.

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Safety committee meetings.

In addition to the above it is good practice to consult with employees in good time regarding: 

The introduction of any measures which may substantially affect their health and safety.

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

The arrangements for appointing or nominating competent persons.

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Any health and safety information to be provided to employees.

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The planning and organisation of any health and safety training.

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Health and safety consequences of introducing new technology.

Involving and consulting with employees is an important process for getting employees to take ownership of health and safety issues. The fact that they or their colleagues have been involved in health and safety matters encourages respect for safety rules and improves attitudes towards safety. These values all help to produce a more positive safety culture within the organisation.

Training Training is vital for ensuring that people have the right skills to carry out their job safely. Training also makes individuals feel valued and is an important part of their personal growth and achievement. Employees who receive training are more likely to be motivated and take newly learned skills or ideas back to the workplace.

Promotion of Ownership There are many ways to promote ownership in individuals. Involvement and consultation are two areas which have been discussed above. In addition, simply talking to people and asking their opinion or asking for their thoughts on a health and safety problem can encourage them to think about health and safety and what they personally can do to improve it.

Setting and Meeting Targets Setting safety targets for either individuals or teams to meet can have a positive effect on a safety culture. Usually there will be an incentive to encourage meeting the target. This incentive could be a bonus, linked to performance-related pay or could be an award or prize. The target could be, for example, to obtain a higher score in a health and safety inspection. Aiming for the target should encourage people to work together in order to achieve it and this usually means people talking about health and safety and ways for improving it. Once the target is met, it is important to maintain that standard and to encourage further improvement by setting another target. It is very important, however, to ensure that the targets are achievable in order to prevent employees becoming disheartened and not trying to meet the target.

Factors that May Promote a Negative Health and Safety Culture In addition to encouraging the positive approach outlined above, it is also necessary to be aware of negative factors which can have an adverse influence on the safety culture.

Organisational Change Company re-organisations often leave individuals worrying about job security and their position in the organisation. Many people fear change and unless it is handled correctly, many employees will mistrust management and become suspicious of any alterations to their role or environment (even ones that are beneficial). There are many reasons for a company re-organisation including: 

A merger.

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Relocation of the business.

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

Redundancies.

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Downsizing.

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External pressures over which the organisation has no power, e.g. the effect of BSE on the meat industry.

Sometimes, companies may offer voluntary redundancies in order to make the job losses more palatable, but sometimes the redundancies are compulsory. The company may also offer generous financial packages in excess of the statutory minimum to soften the blow to employees. Problems may occur, however, should the retained staff have to operate with reduced manpower and resources. The retained employees may also feel threatened by the possibility of further redundancies. This may lead to bitterness and anger within the workforce and a subsequent lapse in health and safety standards. Further resentment may grow where shareholders and directors are seen to benefit substantially from the loss of colleagues who have left the business. Where outside pressures are the cause of the re-organisation then employees may be more understanding than if the changes are brought about by the need to improve profits. Frequent re-organisations can be very damaging to a company unless they are handled well. Increased workforce dissatisfaction can be one of the effects and this can lead to some employees moving on, which in turn can leave gaps in the operation which cause further difficulties. This type of situation can lead to more accidents and more incidents as well as increased sickness and absence from work.

Lack of Confidence in Organisation's Objectives and Methods Most companies have objectives laid down with respect to productivity and safety. If productivity appears to take precedence over safety, however, then worker perception might be that the company is unethical and untrustworthy with little commitment to safety and this may lead to a subsequent deterioration in the safety culture. The following are examples where workers may deem that safety has been compromised in order to achieve productivity: 

Safety improvements only made after incidents have occurred.



Double standards in the application of safety regulations by safety advisers and management.



Unsafe practices ignored in order to improve productivity.



Permit-to-work systems not being operated as they should be.



Changes made to safety rules during operation.

Uncertainty Security is a basic human need. In an uncertain environment people generate feelings of insecurity. When security cannot be assured, humans cannot achieve their full potential. Lack of job security or uncertainty about the future can lead to dissatisfaction, lack of interest in the job and generally poor attitudes towards the company and colleagues. Uncertainty is often caused by management behaviour which sends mixed behaviour signals to the workforce. If management are seen to say one thing and then do something different, this undermines their authority and credibility, e.g. managers drinking on the job or failing to wear PPE.

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Management Decisions that Prejudice Mutual Trust or Lead to 'Mixed Signals' Regarding Commitment Management decisions which are, or are perceived to be, inconsistent or poorly made can set off unrest and distrust in an organisation. There may be good reasons for the decision, which is why it is extremely important that management are aware that good communication is an important part of the decision-making process. The following circumstances could give rise to distrust and doubt about management commitment generally (these could equally apply to decisions about safety): 

Where there are no rules or no precedents, decisions may appear to be arbitrary and inconsistent.



Refusal to delegate decision-making leads to demotivation and diminution of a sense of responsibility in subordinates.



Constant rescinding by senior management of decisions made at lower levels of management.



Delays in making decisions.



Decisions affected by conflicting goals between management and worker.



Decisions affected by conflicting goals between different departments.



Lack of consultation prior to decision-making.

Impact of Organisational Factors on Individual Behaviour We are all influenced to some degree by things that we see and hear. Billions of pounds are spent every year by companies on television advertising because they know how influential television can be. Cigarette advertising in the UK has been banned in an attempt to reduce smoking and, hence, smoking-related illnesses. The 'lifestyle' programmes that try to get us to eat more healthily and take more exercise are becoming more and more popular. These are just a couple of examples of how our behaviour is being moulded by an influential medium. There are many more. If we take the workplace, for example, who and what are likely to influence our behaviour when it comes to safety? Typical answers might include: •

Managers and Supervisors

If they appear to condone poor behaviour, then it is likely to go unchecked. Does safe behaviour rank way below productivity? Do they show commitment to safety and lead by example? Do they commit sufficient resources to health and safety? •

Work Colleagues

The way that colleagues behave will probably have an influence on others. What is their attitude to risk taking? •

Training

Not being trained in correct procedures and use of equipment can affect health and safety. Does the organisation see training as a priority? Is the training appropriate?

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•

Job Design

Job design may be done in a way that makes safe behaviour difficult. How much consideration has been given to the layout of the job and the needs of the individual? •

Work Equipment

If this is not kept in good order or is often unavailable, it may affect health and safety. What is the organisation’s attitude to equipment maintenance?

Evidence of Commitment by Personnel at All Levels in the Organisation Commitment can be defined as: "a declared attachment to a doctrine or cause". It is the goal of every safety practitioner to ensure commitment to health and safety by every individual within an organisation. This commitment must start at the management board level. It is extremely important that management show their commitment to safety, as this sets the standard for the whole organisation. The workforce will only believe in this commitment if they know that management are willing to sacrifice productivity or time in order to ensure the safety of individuals. Evidence of commitment can be seen by management visibility. It is often assumed that if managers are not seen on the 'shop-floor' or at the ‘sharp end of activity’ then they are not interested in the job or health and safety. For this reason, lack of management visibility is seen as a lack of commitment to safety and this becomes part of the organisation's safety culture. Visible commitment can be demonstrated by management: 

Being seen and involved with the work and correcting deficiencies.



Providing sufficient resources to carry out jobs safely (ensuring that there are enough people, time and money to carry out the job safely, providing appropriate PPE).



Ensuring that all personnel are competent (providing training and supervision).



Enforcing the company safety rules and complying with them personally (introducing safe systems of work and insisting on their observance).



Matching their actions to their words (correcting defects as soon as is reasonably practicable, avoidance of double standards).

Lack of Blame Culture A key indication of an enlightened safety culture is the way in which accidents are viewed. Are they simply caused by worker stupidity and therefore finding the person responsible, allocating blame and taking disciplinary action is the solution? Or do they provide us with important information regarding the effectiveness of the safety management system, in which case the aim is to get a detached analysis of the causal chain (both immediate and underlying causes), so that we can identify where the system has failed and correct it? The ideal culture might be one where all incidents, near misses, out-of-specification activities, etc. are openly reported and objectively analysed without any consideration of blame or fault, but whether this is too much to expect from human nature is an interesting point for debate!

Effecting Change Having identified factors which lead to a negative attitude towards health and safety, the safety practitioner, if he is to be effective, has to attack the problem of change. Changing the culture

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of an organisation means changing people’s behaviour and attitudes. This is by no means easy and the safety practitioner has to be aware of the individual and organisational in-built resistance to changes in attitudes and culture generally. Change is an inherent part of modern life. However, there are a lot of people who find change difficult to deal with and who are, indeed, afraid of it. In order to effect change within an organisational culture, one has to plan the strategy and communicate right from the start in order to involve employees and not alienate them.

Planning and Communication Planning for change should start at the top of the organisation but should also encourage participation at all levels. There should be clear objectives as to what is to be achieved by the proposed change. Plans for change should clearly designate who is responsible for initiating and implementing specified changes as well as how each stage of the change process will be conducted. Effective communication between all those implementing change is crucial. In order to prevent rumours circulating and misunderstandings developing, it is important to publicise information relating to the pending change as early as possible. Wherever possible direct briefings, meetings or interviews should keep managers and staff aware of proposed changes and the progress made as changes get underway.

The Need for a Gradualist (Step-by-Step) Approach One of the ways of effecting change in an organisational culture is by taking a gradualist (stepby-step) approach. In other words, this is an approach where the changes are phased in over a period of time. The main advantage of this approach is that there is time for adaptation and modification. Additionally, it allows time for the change to become part of the established culture. The major disadvantage of a gradualist approach to change is that the changes take a relatively long time to implement. This can mean that unsatisfactory conditions and mindsets may be left in place for longer than is desirable.

Action to Promote Change Direct

Direct methods of change are where positive action is carried out with the sole objective of effecting change. This could be carried out by setting up a two-tiered system, i.e. a steering group and a working party. The steering group should consist of high level personnel (e.g. directors and heads of departments) who give broad objectives and set timescales. The steering group will meet approximately every three months. The working party, however, will meet every month and will consist of middle management, first-line supervisors and union/worker representatives. The working party will carry the 'message' to the workforce and provide feedback. The chair of the working party should also be a member of the steering party and this role is usually filled by a safety professional who can act as the link between the two groups. The pace of change should be dictated by the feedback which is given by the working party. Indirect

Indirect methods of change do bring about change but they are not necessarily the primary reason for carrying out the method. For example, risk assessments identify deficiencies in the

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workplace and corrective action to put them right. Therefore, indirectly, the result of a risk assessment is to bring about change with the ultimate aim of reducing risk in the workplace. Another example of an indirect method is training. Training courses can include information about new or impending safety legislation or safety technology, thereby paving the way for future changes. Performance measurements can be introduced in order to encourage employees to have a greater interest and involvement in health and safety. Where performance measurements improve over time then these can be linked to an incentive scheme. It is important not to link them to accident/incident rates as this can lead to under-reporting. These are an inexpensive way of promoting health and safety, but they need the support of management and unions to be successful. Feedback is crucial to ensuring that any changes implemented are working successfully. Feedback from employees will enable management to evaluate the new processes, and finetune them where necessary.

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Benefits of a Positive Health and Safety Culture The transition from a negative safety culture to a positive one can be mapped against five levels: 1.

No-one knows or cares about safety.

2.

Improvements are only made following a serious incident.

3.

Management systems are used to encourage and monitor safe working.

4.

People try to avoid problems occurring and live in a constant state of awareness.

5.

Safety is integral to everything that we do.

We can see from this that in achieving a positive safety culture, we move from a purely reactive approach to health and safety to a proactive position where we manage risks and exercise control over our activities. The benefits of such a position can be seen from the following indicators that we use to confirm a positive health and safety culture: •

Genuine, visible leadership and commitment from the top on health and safety issues.

Workforce motivation and morale is inspired by the leadership and commitment of senior managers. •

Acceptance that achieving good health and safety performance is a long-term strategy that requires sustained interest and efforts.

The workforce are clear about the organisation’s health and safety objectives and these are consistently and continuously pursued. •

Treating health and safety performance as a business objective, and resourcing it adequately.

Health and safety is not a ‘bolt on’ or an afterthought, but is an integral part of the organisation’s business plan and has equal status with other business objectives. Consequently, senior managers treat it with equal importance and resource it accordingly. •

Ensuring that health and safety is a line management responsibility and that managers understand their own role in promoting and protecting their own health and safety and that of their staff.

Managers take an active responsibility for the health and safety of their staff, which is reflected in a reduction in accidents and incidents. •

Creating ‘ownership’ of health and safety throughout all levels within the organisation - this requires employee involvement, training and communication programmes, so that staff can identify hazards/risks, suggest control measures, provide feedback, and feel that they ‘own’ safety procedures.

Employees are fully aware of the hazards in the organisation and understand the risks to their health and safety and consequently are actively involved in the health and safety programme. This is reflected in visible safe working practices.

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Providing high quality training that is properly managed, meets the requirements of the organisation, and has well-chosen, high quality content. Staff are fully trained in safe working procedures and consistently comply with them. •

Setting realistic and achievable targets, receiving adequate and up-to-date performance information, and measuring performance against the targets.

Health and safety is a dynamic objective and the organisation has well-defined standards of performance that it aims to achieve and can measure against. Consequently, high standards of health and safety performance are expected and delivered. •

Ensuring that incidents (injury accidents, non-injury accidents and near misses) are thoroughly investigated and actions taken to prevent their recurrence.

•

Ensuring audits and assessments are carried out and resultant actions taken promptly.

Information from reactive monitoring (accidents and incidents) and proactive monitoring (audits and inspections) is used to identify failings in the health and safety management system and remedial action is taken as a result to improve the management of health and safety. •

Making good safety behaviour a condition of employment, part of the job description, and part of the employee performance review.

Employees are clear about their health and safety responsibilities, because these are fully integrated into the job specification. Consequently, high standards of safe behaviour become the accepted values. In addition to this, we can identify some specific benefits that will result from a positive health and safety culture.

Reduction in Losses If the general outcome of a positive health and safety culture is that employees are fully aware of the risks to their health and safety in the organisation, are clear about their health and safety responsibilities and are held accountable for them, and follow safe working procedures as the accepted standard, then this must lead to a reduction in errors, failures, incidents, accidents or any deviation from safe working procedures.

Reduced Accidents, Injuries and Ill-Health The model for accident analysis in HSG 65 (available from the HSE in the UK) is based on identification of immediate causes that result from failings in premises, plant/substances, procedures and people, and underlying causes that result from failures in risk control systems. In a positive safety culture environment, robust workplace precautions are in place and are maintained by effective risk control systems. Consequently, the likelihood of failure is drastically reduced and this must be reflected in a reduction in accidents, injuries and ill-health. Where such rare events do occur, the culture is to fully investigate the incident in a blame-free environment, to identify the system failure and rectify it to prevent a recurrence. As a result, an already good safety management system is further improved, which should reduce the likelihood of accidents even further.

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Reduced Property Damage Incidents Mistakes by employees may not only cause injuries and ill-health, but also lead to property damage and the interruption of production. Where there is a positive health and safety culture, the aim will be to control all accidental loss, including damage to property. A culture where hazards are identified, risks assessed, precautions put in place and checks carried out to see that they are being used protects employees, improves the quality of work and safeguards plant and production.

Improved Workforce Morale Morale among workers is an important factor in the safe operation of a company’s activities. A demoralised workforce will not be motivated to follow safety procedures or to report deficiencies to management. A positive health and safety culture in which the company is seen to value its employees, to listen to their concerns and to give priority to their safety will improve the morale of the workforce and encourage them to take an active part in maintaining safety in the workplace.

Reduced Need for Management Control of Employee Behaviour Where employees are able to work together in a positive atmosphere in which safety is regarded as paramount by all, there is less need for management to operate close supervision. Individual and group behaviour will be motivated by concern for safety and it will not be necessary for management to impose standards against the will of employees. Control will still be required but conformance will be by consent, reducing the need for visible enforcement of safety procedures.

Greater Employee Participation An organisation’s culture sets the tone for the individual and group behaviour, the priorities which they see as important, the involvement with and attachment to the organisation that people have, their ability to influence its operations, etc. A positive health and safety culture should promote employee involvement and commitment at all levels, emphasising that deviation from established health and safety standards is not acceptable.

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Barriers to a Positive Health and Safety Culture Human Factors What do we mean by “human factors”? In the UK the HSE have produced a publication, Reducing Error and Influencing Behaviour (HSG48), and they suggest the following answer: “The term human factor is used to cover a range of issues. They include the perceptual, mental and physical capabilities of people and the interactions of individuals with their job and working environments, the influence of equipment and systems design on human performance, and above all, the organisational characteristics which influence safety-related behaviour at work.” Personal factors creating a barrier to a positive health and safety culture include: 

Mistaken actions or priorities.



Different risk thresholds.



Wilful disregard of procedures.



Poor work attitude.



Over-familiarity with work tasks.



Fatigue, stress or illness.



Change to physical capability (age, pregnancy).



Boredom and lack of concentration often associated with repetitive tasks.



Substance abuse or medication.



Lack of motivation.

Since the safety practitioner often has to act as an agent of change, motivating the company’s personnel to achieve higher safety standards, changing attitudes to safety, and influencing individuals and groups, he or she must understand people, be able to communicate with them and understand the problems caused by their different perceptions and attitudes to risk. Human behaviour is a very complex issue and it is affected by a large range of factors.

Basic Needs Everyone seems to inherit certain basic urges or drives, similar to those found in the natural instincts of animals. No teaching or learning is necessary; in fact, the drives appear to be automatic. People are unaware of these urges until they break into the conscious mind, forcing individuals to act in certain ways. If the drive is suppressed, frustration occurs and unless other outlets are found, people suffer and their energy is weakened.

Human Instincts Instinctive inclinations may cause people to behave in ways that seriously hamper relationships in industry unless the instincts are understood and used properly. The most important instincts affecting industrial relations are: 

Self-assertion - the desire to be important and respected.



Acquisitive tendency - the desire for security and protection.



Aggressive impulse - the desire to dominate and control.

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

Gregarious instinct - the desire to belong to social groups.



Constructive instinct - the desire to create.

We shall examine each of these in turn: •

Self-Assertion

The strong desire to be important closely associates itself with the instinct of construction, if a person likes to think about what he or she makes as belonging to himself or herself. This concept becomes difficult to reconcile with the facts when work is divided into many processes, each one being performed by a different individual. Lack of security, poor wages, unsatisfactory working conditions and bad relationships between management, supervision and operatives can also destroy pride of ownership in the work. Efforts by management to improve human relations generate the group spirit and give operatives confidence in their individual ability and importance. Making people feel important means something more than paying high wages. It is for management and supervisor to show the individuals their respect and appreciation in positive action. •

Acquisitive Tendency

The feelings connected with this instinct are protection and possession. The desire to possess extends to include people, property and ideas. This instinct may appear as the strong urge to control and have power over people. The need for security is satisfied by material and abstract possessions. Security as a form of protection is also found in employment, superannuation and insurance benefits, which are protections against accident and old age. •

Aggressive Impulse

The desire to be powerful is stronger than the urge for prominence, which comes under self-assertion. A desire for power finds expression in aggression as a generally hostile, quarrelsome attitude, or even physical violence. The reason for its importance is its close connection with the instinct to escape, often felt in difficult situations. •

Gregarious Instinct

This has considerable implications for health and safety in that it would appear that, in order for individuals to conform to the organisation’s policy and practices, these policies and practices have to be accepted as part of the normal behaviour of the groups to which the individuals belong. If group values are oriented in favour of encouraging good health and safety practices in the workplace, an individual within that group will normally react or respond by accepting those same values. However, if the group values dictate that, for example, wearing protective clothing or following safety codes is silly, individuals will be reluctant to conform to the organisation’s policy, or if they do, may seek to find ways around it. The desire to belong to social groups and to be accepted as part of the group is fundamental. When the opportunity occurs, encourage the efforts of ‘working groups’ by appropriate praise and reference to their achievements.

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•

Constructive Instinct

The urge to create is often satisfied by giving people the opportunity to express themselves in ways such as suggesting improvements, putting forward ideas and opinions, and allowing some flexibility in how they do their job. Employees should receive credit for their proposals if adopted. Where this is not feasible, the reason must be given and this reason must always be valid, acceptable and given with adequate explanation.

Inappropriate Health and Safety Management Systems In a positive health and safety culture, there is full integration of health and safety into the management process. The advantages of integrating quality, health and safety and the environment in a common management system are well understood now. However, there are still many examples of health and safety being a ‘bolt on’, an unnecessary burden that grudgingly has to be considered, but is not seen as part of the mainstream business of the organisation. The degree to which health and safety is taken into account and influences major management decisions is an indication of its importance in the planning process. Is there evidence of health and safety being considered when management decisions are made on new developments, or does health and safety only become an issue when problems arise and unsafe or unhealthy conditions develop?

Condition of the Workplace and Working Areas The safety practitioner’s basic tool, the walkabout inspection, can tell us much about the prevailing culture. Even simple obvious things such as poor housekeeping, cluttered workbenches and inadequate standards of cleanliness, tell us much about the prevailing attitude towards health and safety standards.

Perception of Job Security Human beings, by nature, seek security and stability, and an uncertain environment generates feelings of insecurity. This can arise over the outcome of organisational change. As we saw earlier, lack of job security or uncertainty about the future leads to dissatisfaction, lack of interest in the job and generally poor attitudes towards the company and working colleagues. Uncertainty over job security can affect individuals in many ways: 

At its worst, the uncertainty may represent a threat to the security of an individual’s job or the maintenance of existing levels of income.



Any disturbance to the individual’s working group and relationships, particularly when organisations are restructured, may affect the individual’s need to belong and to be accepted, as new and uncertain social relationships have to be formed.



New working practices will almost inevitably involve the acquisition of new skills and an individual’s sense of self-esteem may be threatened by the uncertainty about being able to cope with learning the necessary skills. In re-organisations, there may be uncertainty over how the new structures will displace traditional hierarchies, affecting the individual’s status within the organisation and role and recognition within his/her social groups.

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

Any change may cause uncertainty about continuing opportunities for personal fulfilment through the challenges of the job. This is often the result of a lack of control over the future, which itself can cause resentment.

Inappropriate Pay and Reward Schemes Attempts are often made to get workers to conform to the organisational goals by the use of some incentive scheme. You will quite probably have been paid by results at some time, or know of such systems. Health and safety is usually viewed with a certain amount of indifference by most staff as being dull and uninteresting. Motivation towards greater interest and involvement in health and safety can be generated by incentive schemes, although they need to be carefully organised and monitored. As we saw earlier, it is important not to link them to incident/accident rates as this can lead to under-reporting of incidents. They are an inexpensive means of promoting health and safety but need the support of management and unions to be completely successful. We need to consider the effect of incentive schemes on accident rates and ill-health. Is it possible to give incentives for employees to work safely and avoid accidents? What would be the effect of the introduction of an incentive scheme on the accident rate? You might assume that since the employees would now be trying to maximise output, they would cut corners and take risks, and so produce more accidents. It is not easy to prove this. Accidents are random events, so data needs to be collected over a long time period in order to be statistically valid. Many industries always use incentive schemes or production bonuses, while others work on a day-wage system, so it is not easy to make comparisons. Any new system of work, or payment method, tends to have an immediate effect on accident rates. Bonus schemes do tend to have the effect of encouraging workers to attend regularly, and this includes working when they are ill or have had some minor injury. The use of incentive schemes to get workers to work safely is problematic. Such schemes need to use a long time period, say one year, which reduces the effectiveness. They can also result in under-reporting of accidents. If a person reports an accident then the bonus is lost, so there is no incentive to work safely until the new time period starts. A British Coal scheme, which was well advertised, drew out a name from all those who had not had an accident during the year but had worked a certain number of shifts. This person was then presented with a car. The first winner was not even aware that such an incentive scheme existed. There was some unfairness built into the scheme, because the level of risk was not uniform for all workers, or even for workplaces of the same type.

Lack of Information Communication is an essential element of a positive health and safety culture. It is easy to see how an organisation that does not have an effective system for disseminating information to the workforce will have difficulty in sharing beliefs and values relating to the health and safety culture.

Lack of Consultation Effective consultation with managers at all levels and with trade-union representatives, representatives of staff associations, and workers’ representatives about proposals for change, as well as in some countries being a legal requirement in health and safety terms, is of paramount importance in dealing with change.

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Failure by management to allow for adequate consultation can lead to demotivation and even obstruction as the changes are implemented. This can clearly have a substantial impact on health and safety. Wherever possible, those affected by the change should be encouraged to participate in its implementation. The human relations approach stresses that communication should be supplemented by encouraging individuals and work groups to contribute their views as change progresses. Senior management can profit from the feedback they receive from all parts of the organisation. Research has shown that participation in solving the problems connected with change assists its acceptance by the staff concerned.

Management Resistance A negative safety culture can be induced by bad or indifferent management. If management and first-line supervisors perceive that the company has an overwhelming drive to achieve productivity at the expense of safety, they may well adopt the same attitude to demonstrate their commitment to company objectives. This can have a disastrous effect on the shop-floor employees, affecting safety, morale and motivation. The promotion of individual commitment towards health and safety is the goal of every safety practitioner and the starting point has to be at management board level. There will only be a belief in the commitment of management towards safety if it is generally believed that management are prepared to make sacrifices in terms of productivity or time to ensure the safety of the workforce, i.e. management will not condone shortcuts that compromise safety. One leading factor in demonstrating management’s commitment is management visibility. If management are never seen on site then there will be an assumption that management is not interested in the job and, by implication, health and safety. Lack of management visibility is perceived as lack of management commitment and the bad example then percolates down through the company and becomes part of the culture. Individual managers must be educated to believe that their commitment to health and safety is of the utmost importance in setting the tone for the company’s attitude to safety, which will be assimilated by employees as part of their culture.

Compliance with Laid Down Procedures The extent to which the written safe systems of work and safe working procedures are complied with gives us an indication of the nature of the safety culture. Are procedures there to be followed or are they merely window dressing with no real management intention of compliance?

Quality and Degree of Implementation of the Safety Policy The tone of the health and safety policy, particularly the policy statement, can give us some indication of the prevailing culture, and possibly the personal views of the senior manager responsible for health and safety who signs the statement. Some employers begrudgingly construct health and safety policies and subsequently see taking responsibility for health and safety as an unnecessary burden. As a result, they may create a culture whereby their policy states that responsibility for health and safety principally lies with the worker, to ‘take care’, ‘use common sense’, ‘avoid accidents’, and not with the employer to actively manage risks. Even when policy statements promise all manner of things to ensure high standards of health and safety, the real test of the safety culture is the degree to which the policy is expected to be implemented and to what extent this is achieved.

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Perception of Benefits to Individual/Company Management decisions which are aimed at achieving individual rather than organisational objectives or decisions generated according to some hidden agenda are disruptive. It is this placing of self-interest in terms of career progression before service to the organisation which can often disrupt relationships and affect the efficiency of the company.

Lack of Resources We made reference above to safety policies that are full of promises that are not delivered. A common reason for failure to implement the health and safety programme is lack of resources and this needs, firstly, to be addressed in the safety policy in a commitment to resource the safety programme. However, it also needs to be borne out in practice with adequate funding to deliver the programme. If management fail to provide sufficient people, time and money to carry out the job safely, or to provide appropriate PPE, a positive health and safety culture cannot be maintained. We must, however, recognise the economic realities which organisations have to operate in. The state of the economy, both in general and as to how it affects a particular industry, determines to a large extent the prices of both the resources that organisations use (labour and materials) and the goods and services they produce. This, in turn, affects the way in which work activities are carried out – for example, through demands for cost cutting, higher productivity, etc. – as well as what resources are available for health and safety. While absolute duties under the law must always be complied with, where the duties are qualified, cost can be a factor in determining what is reasonably practicable.

Ignorance of Legal Requirements In the area of health and safety, legislation is probably the dominant influence on organisations. They must comply with the law or they will not be allowed to continue operations. Organisations must, therefore, ensure that they understand and comply with the legal requirements placed on them at all times. This can be a great burden because the law on health and safety (depending on the country) can be extensive and changes relatively frequently. There is also a wealth of information and guidance coming from the HSE in the UK which needs to be assessed in order to ensure that good practice is being adhered to. If an organisation or its employees are ignorant of applicable legal requirements relating to safe working practices, the standards necessary for a positive health and safety culture will be lacking. Unanticipated enforcement action and its consequences may also have a detrimental effect on the culture and climate of the company.

Resistance to Change Change represents a challenge to the established ways of doing things and may constitute a threat to the interests of particular individuals or groups (at any level within the organisation). It also creates uncertainty. Management needs to treat its employees with sensitivity if changes are not to have detrimental effects on the culture of the organisation. Some people are more resistant to change than others. Older people tend to be more resistant than young people, and people with heavy commitments such as large mortgages tend to fear change as they need to feel secure. Some people develop set patterns of thought and behaviour and these can be difficult to overcome when change occurs. This is known as perceptual set, and is the way in which

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observed information is processed by the individual to fit his/her internal experience, attitude, expectations, sensitivity and culture. All these factors need to be considered and tackled as part of the change process. The accepted approach to managing change is to involve, from the outset, all employees who may be affected by it. This has the effect of allowing them to express their worries and fears, to have an input into the changes and to accept both the need for change and the changes that are to be introduced. There will always be resistance to change in an organisation. Remember the oft quoted “I have been doing this for 20 years and have never had an accident!”. Staff need to understand what is in it for them and take ownership of their part of the change process. Consequently, confidence in the organisation’s objectives and trust in management commitment and leadership are key requisites to get everyone on board.

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C O N T E N T S Study Unit 3A2

Title

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Encouraging Positive Behaviour

HUMAN FACTORS ................................................................................................................................................ 3 PERCEPTION OF RISK .............................................................................................................................................. 3 COMPETENCE ........................................................................................................................................................ 5 PHYSICAL CAPABILITY ............................................................................................................................................. 7 MENTAL CAPACITY ................................................................................................................................................. 7 AGEING............................................................................................................................................................... 8 PERSONALITY ....................................................................................................................................................... 8 MOTIVATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 10 ATTITUDE .......................................................................................................................................................... 13 MENTAL WELL-BEING AND STRESS ............................................................................................................................ 15 TEAM WORKING .................................................................................................................................................. 16 MOTIVATIONAL THEORY .................................................................................................................................. 20 MASLOW ........................................................................................................................................................... 20 HERZBERG ......................................................................................................................................................... 21


BSC International Diploma | Unit 3 Element 3A | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture Study Unit 3A2 | Encouraging Positive Behaviour Learning Outcomes When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:

➢

Encourage positive behaviour in relation to health and safety through an understanding of human factors.

➢

Apply motivational theory to encourage positive behaviour in relation to health and safety.

Unit 4:

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Human Factors Perception of Risk Human Sensory Receptors and their Reaction to Stimuli The natural senses are: 

Sight.



Hearing.



Taste.



Smell.



Touch.

These have been called "the windows of the soul". Some regard intuition as a sixth sense. Personal safety involves reacting to the signals sent by our human sensory receptors to the brain. For example, we actually see with our brains rather than with our eyes. Our eyes send small electrical signals to the brain, where the visual image is constructed and interpreted. You may have seen examples of optical illusions. For example, which of the two lines is the longer?

y

x

x

y Optical Illusion

They are actually the same length but our brain sees them differently because it is used to interpreting lengths of sides of box-shaped articles and buildings. Each of our other senses works in the same way by sending signals to the brain. There is a time interval between the signal being sent from the sensory receptor and the brain making us aware of the situation. Our senses are the main way in which we get warning of personal danger.

Sensory Defects and Basic Screening Techniques You will be aware, on occasions, of not seeing or hearing something which was very plain to someone else. Your wife, or husband, may complain about your sensory defects. "None so deaf as those who don't want to hear", is a fairly common statement. Sensory defects increase with age and failing health. Some people need spectacles and hearing aids, and you should have a general idea of why this could be so. The safety practitioner probably needs to be more concerned about those who don't know that they have sensory defects or try to forget that they have them. We also have the ability to shut out those things that we are not interested in, that is, screen out those things that we consider not worth concentrating on at the moment. Even as you

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read this, you will be skipping over those ideas that you already know, or think that you know, and perhaps concentrating too hard on other items. We have to do this in life: 

A worker is able to filter out noises in a workshop.



When driving a car, or a work machine, or typing at the computer, most of the operations are done in 'autopilot' mode.

This saves effort and allows us to concentrate on other things, or think ahead. This is all very good and useful, but it is the reason for many accidents. You cannot expect 100% concentration on safety matters from others if you seldom give 100% attention yourself.

Process of Perception of Danger There has been a lot of research into perception of danger by individuals and groups. This research shows that there is a clear distinction between how we perceive risks to personal safety, dangers to health, and dangers to society. Individuals who engage in hazardous sports and activities may be very reluctant to take even a small risk in the work situation. It is worth considering the factors involved in perception: •

Signals from the Sensory Receptors Our eyes, ears, nose, touch and perhaps taste make us aware of the situation, but these signals can be misleading if we suffer from some sensory defect.

•

Expected Information from the Memory We also have an expectation of what to see and hear; this signal is from the memory. We sometimes see things which are not there, and don't see things which are. This signal can also be misleading, particularly if it is affected by stress, alcohol, drugs, fatigue or just familiarity.

These two signals combine to give us a 'picture' of the situation of hazard, which is then processed by the brain. We then take, or decide not to take, action.

Perceptual Set This is sometimes called a 'mindset'. We have a problem. Immediately we perceive not only the problem, but also the answer. We then set about solving the problem as we have perceived it. Further evidence may become available which shows that our original perception was faulty, but we are now so busy congratulating ourselves on our intelligent solution that we fail to see alternative causes and solutions. This is a basic cause or factor in many accidents and disasters. Students often get such mindsets when answering examination questions and assignments. You have prepared yourself well for a particular type of question. This seems to be there on the examination paper and you immediately set about writing the answer. Later, when discussing this with others or rereading the question, you wonder how you could have missed the point. The examination committee spent a great deal of effort to make it perfectly clear what was needed, but all to no avail. (Answer the question which has been set, not the one you wished had been set.) The same thing can happen in work situations. For example, a signalman was expected to check that there was a red light at the back of every train which passed his signal-box. He had never seen a situation where this was not so in the ten years that he had been doing his job. However, on one occasion, part of the train had become uncoupled, but he distinctly remembered checking and "seeing" the red light as the train passed. A following train collided

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with the part of the train that had become uncoupled. This was a typical case of mindset or perceptual set.

Perceptual Distortion Everyone's perception of hazard is faulty (except the safety practitioner's, of course!) because it gets distorted. Things that are to our advantage always tend to seem more right than those that are to our disadvantage. Management generally tend to have a different perception of hazard from that of workers. When it affects work rates, physical effort or bonus payments, workers also suffer from perceptual distortion.

Errors in Perception Caused by Physical Stressors In examining the cause of errors in perception, we also need to consider the effects of fatigue, overwork, overtime, stresses from the workplace, and stresses from home and outside activities. Shift work is a major factor. Our bodies operate best when we have a regular routine. There is an inbuilt clock (the 'Circadian Cycle') and the pattern of work, rest and sleep is upset by a change of work pattern. I would even suggest that we are locked into a sevenday pattern. Perception is affected by having to keep awake and alert when the body is saying that it is time to sleep. Fatigue is more than tiredness of the muscles and the mind. There is a physical, mental and psychological dimension. Some of the research and writings of Peter Drucker make very interesting reading. He suggests that there is no logic to work, only dimensions. To avoid fatigue, we need to have some satisfaction in each of these dimensions.

Perception and the Assessment of Risk If there are problems in our basic perception of a situation, then there are obviously going to be errors in our perception of risk. In assessing a risk there is safety in numbers. My faulty perception of a risk could be corrected by another person's clearer perception of an issue. Perception also depends upon knowledge and experience. A group will usually have more to contribute than an individual.

Perception and the Limitations of Human Performance Even when we have achieved perfection in the realm of perception - and this is very unlikely we still have to put the solution into effect. As human beings we have limitations in knowledge, strength, physical and mental ability. We have plenty of excuses for getting things wrong. The major problem is that legislation, the courts, the media and the public at large expect perfection in the realm of health and safety. Even reasonable reporters ask, "Can you guarantee that this will never happen again?", when investigating an industrial accident situation. We can only say something like, "We have learned from this mistake and, on the balance of probabilities, we consider the possibility as now remote".

Competence Experience With increasing experience we would expect an employee to become more competent and to increase in ability to cope with situations. However, there is also complacency and a tendency to cut corners. Age and experience are correlated with differences in accident susceptibility as the graph below indicates. Though its exact shape will vary with circumstances, the curve will remain roughly the same.

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Experience

Age/frequency curve

Frequency of Accidents

Experience/frequency curve

Age

Accident Susceptibility in Relation to Age and Experience Can you explain the shape of the curves? The 'blip' on the experience curve is the most important factor.

The 'blip' on the experience/frequency curve is due to complacency. The accident frequency reduces initially as experience increases. However, familiarity/complacency/misplaced confidence may develop and lead to shortcuts being taken, safe working procedures not being fully followed and eventually an accident occurring. The 'short sharp shock' resulting from the incident should hopefully be enough to restore safe working procedures and restore the downward trend in accidents.

Intelligence A person of low intelligence may find even a routine, production-line type of employment very taxing, while a person of high intelligence would find this boring in the extreme. If the workload requires an attention level which is beyond the mental capabilities of the employee, then a state of stress will occur. There needs to be enough mental stimulation but not too much. From the safety point of view we can divide work activities as follows: •

Skill Based The employee carries out some manual task which he or she has been trained to do. If a problem occurs, then the employee may need help to solve it.

•

Rule Based Here the job requires the employee to carry out a range of tasks. For each task or each problem situation there will be a previously thought out solution. Only those matters which have not been considered will prove difficult.

•

Knowledge Based Here the employee will regularly meet situations where a decision, based on training, experience and knowledge of principles, will be needed. He (or she) may be in a situation where it is not easy to ask for assistance, since he (or she) is in charge of the operation and is being paid to find the solution.

If a person of high intelligence is set a mundane task, he will probably employ himself in finding new and less arduous, but not necessarily safer, ways of completing the task. Intelligence is required to defeat interlocking safety devices. Correctly employed, such a person could be using his intelligence and ability to devise safer work methods.

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Aptitude/Practical Ability When we speak of a person's aptitude for something, we are considering their talent or the appropriateness of their actions. It is possible to know all about safety and health and even to have the correct attitude but, when faced with a decision, take inappropriate action. Practical ability also varies between individuals. The safety practitioner would be seeking ways to remedy this. Education should give knowledge and help to encourage correct attitudes, while training and practice are necessary for aptitude and practical ability.

Education and Training In many ways the concept of safety training is a myth. Certainly the notion of 'bolt-on' training to accompany job training is at best misguided. Training which teaches employees how to perform tasks correctly teaches them how to perform those tasks safely at the same time. The old adage, "the right way to do the job is the safe way to do the job", still has plenty of mileage left in it. The safety practitioner and the training manager should ensure that safety is built into the training package at the identification of training needs stage. In this way safety is also further integrated into the quality and efficiency programme and not left outside it, where money is not available during lean years and time is not available during boom years. It also avoids the unpleasant sight of the safety practitioner being wheeled on to perform his stint during the last few moments of a training course. Of course, there are times when safety training has to stand alone. For example, during induction training, when new employees should be told of specific safety procedures in the concern: fire procedures, first-aid arrangements, etc. In general, however, the more safety training can be integrated into skills training the better. The aim of training is to secure a positive change in the behaviour of personnel. Therefore it is essential to identify the changes in behaviour required before training commences and to set outcomes which can be demonstrated after the training has been received. This approach allows the success of the training to be measured and for evaluation and feedback on success to be provided. It should always be remembered that learning involves a process within the individual which results in a capacity for changed performance related to experience.

Physical Capability People bring to their job their own personal mix of physical characteristics, knowledge and skills, attitudes, habits and personality, any or all of which may be strengths or weaknesses depending on the task demands. These individual characteristics influence behaviour in complex and significant ways, and it is important, therefore, that individuals are appointed to jobs and roles to which they are individually suited. Some of these characteristics are fixed and cannot be changed, or at least not easily or in the short term – for example, physical characteristics.

Mental Capacity Because of limits in human mental capacity, the mind cannot cope directly with the complexity of the world. Individuals construct a simplified mental model of reality and then work with this model. This has an important bearing on the individual's perception of risk, because people behave rationally within the confines of the mental model but the model is not always an accurate representation of the real world, or more importantly, the workplace situation. We have already considered this when we discussed perception of risk.

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Much psychological research on perception, memory, attention span and reasoning capacity documents the limitations in our 'mental machinery' and this work goes some way to explain how these important factors can lead to unsafe behaviour in the workplace. However, in general terms, one can see that individual mental capacity and the mental model of reality that the individual constructs, is an important human factor and, consequently, a human difference that must be taken into account when attempting to encourage positive behaviour in the workplace.

Ageing Accident rates tend to vary with the experience of operatives, as illustrated by the graph, "Accident Susceptibility in Relation to Age and Experience". In general, one would expect the more experienced employee to have a better safety record, but we have seen that familiarity and complacency may lead to shortcuts being taken and a reduction in safety standards. However, in general, with experience should come a better understanding of risks and greater appreciation of safety measures. This points to a need for good induction procedures when new entrants are introduced to a workplace. Note that it is experience which is the key, not necessarily age. Young people, perhaps starting work for the first time, are obviously the most inexperienced, but older people starting work in a new environment are also likely to lack understanding of the particular risks associated with that environment. In addition, younger workers are not as susceptible to death or permanent disablement due to injury at work as older workers, perhaps due to their greater agility (both physical and mental).

Personality The study of personality is the study of stable psychological structures and processes which organise human experience and shape a person's actions and reactions to the environment. Personality is the integrated and dynamic organisation of the physical, mental, moral and social qualities of the individual, as it appears to other people, in the give and take of social life. It appears in the main to consist of natural and acquired impulses and habits, interests and complexes, sentiments and ideals, opinions and beliefs, as shown in a person's relations in his or her social life. There are two components: 

The structures of personality are the stable, unchanging parts built up over the years; they show us what type of character a person is, whether shy or vicious, funny or sad.



The processes of personality have to do with the dynamics of personality - how the structures come to life, how the person acts, changes and behaves.

We can try to classify people by different personality types based on their temperament. They could be extrovert, introvert, shy, etc. Alternatively, we can look at personality traits - characteristics of thought, feeling or action which are inherited or acquired. Traits can be: 

expressive, sometimes called instrumental - you act in a way which shows how you feel; or



motivational - you behave because you have a purpose, a reason for acting like that.

We can also study people individually or in groups over varied periods of time. E.g. one hour, one day, one year, etc.

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Human Similarities Some characteristics are shared by all human beings. In a very interesting short article in the health and safety publication “Safety and Health Practitioner” of October 1990, entitled "Personal Observations on the Nature of Human Behaviour", John Gilbertson gives the following list of human characteristics: 

We do not know the law.



We break the laws that we do not agree with.



We break laws when we think that we will not get caught.



We ignore signs and instructions.



We relegate safety to second place (or less).



We take risks and chances.



We are careless.



We cut corners and choose wrong methods.



We do not read instructions.



We do not check.



We forget.



We do not pay attention.

Obviously we each vary in the degree to which we exhibit these characteristics, but they probably apply to us all. My own list is a little simpler. Human beings are: 

Law breakers - we do not like others telling us what we can or cannot do. Giving lists of 'do's' and 'don'ts' will not make people safe. The rule seems to be, 'Thou shalt not be caught'.



Risk takers - life itself involves a constant element of risk. The lessons of a lifetime are not dispensed within the workplace.



Not machines or robots - human beings have limitations in the realms of knowledge, strength, physical ability and mental ability.

Human Differences Observation of human behaviour indicates that each person is different in some respects. The differences play an important part in the productive capabilities of people, for when people act in their own best interests they work much better. Everyone also has basic needs or similarities, called instincts (see earlier). In addition, people are flexible and able to change their ideas, outlook and general behaviour.

Distribution of Human Differences If any one physical characteristic of people is measured and plotted on a graph, provided the sample measured is sufficient to be a representative sample of the whole 'population', a symmetrical bell-shaped curve will appear (see following diagram).

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100

5'6"

5'3"

Average

Number of Males 50

5'9"

0

6'0"

6'3"

Height of Males (inches)

Distribution of Human Differences Such distribution curves are normally bell-shaped since most of the data falls around the arithmetic average. This is particularly so with natural statistics, e.g. height.

Differing Characteristics Individuals differ in a wide range of characteristics, for example: 

Age.



Size.



Physique - this can be due to hereditary factors, eating habits and the amount of exercise.



Ability, both mental and physical.



Intelligence - not the same as ability, though related to it. Intelligence is measured by scores in intelligence tests, which are a favourite tool of psychologists.



Temperament - extrovert or introvert; tough minded or tender minded. Much of the study of human factors and the work of psychologists is in this area.



Character - honest or dishonest.

The list is not complete but it will give you some idea of the breadth of characteristics. An important factor is that, within the population, each of these characteristics probably follows a normal distribution (as shown in the above diagram).

Motivation Much of the writings of behavioural scientists and psychologists is concerned with the topic of motivation. Motivation is that which makes an individual act as he or she does. It is the tendency of an individual to take action to achieve a particular goal. Basically, motivation involves: 

Need.



Drive.



Incentive.

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

Reward.



Reinforcement.

Drive Once a need has been awakened, there is, from within the personality, a drive to satisfy that need. We will be looking for ways and means to get what we want. A drive can also be a desire to avoid a particular consequence.

Incentive When a person has a drive towards a particular goal, it is then possible to increase motivation by giving a 'push' in that direction; or, alternatively, if the drive is aversive, to reinforce motivation in that direction. On the production side there are many incentive schemes. Incentive can also be likened to the carrot and the stick when trying to make a donkey do what we want.

Reward The achievement of a goal may be the reward. However, it is often possible, or essential, to give a reward as a token in order to maintain the motivation. In the field of health and safety there is no final goal, although there is a continuing need for motivation, so there must be some sense of achievement at regular intervals. In education, the teacher needs to mark work regularly and put ticks and comments to give some reward and maintain motivation.

Reinforcement If a positive event occurs, there is a very good chance that the action will be repeated, so positive reinforcement is said to occur. The behaviour which led up to the reward is likely to happen again. An event which is followed by punishment is less likely to recur. This is negative reinforcement.

Motivation as Need Satisfaction When a need is aroused, an individual experiences a drive towards the goal. If this is achieved, then the need is satisfied and the deprivation is removed. Needs can be defined roughly as: 

Physiological - to do with the physical body; preserving life.



Psychological - being at peace with the world.

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These needs are probably better associated with an image of what is involved in the concept of self. For example, the following diagram indicates the breadth of situations which can be targeted when seeking to motivate. Country Workmates Political Party

Possessions

Family

Profession

Physical Body Self-Image School

Close Friends Religion

Organisations

Broad Groups with which one is Identified

Motivational Influences Many early safety posters showed children and said, "Think of me, work safely".

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Early Safety Poster Source: The Mining Engineer. Reproduced by permission.

Needs can also be classified as: 

Primary needs - basic psychological as well as physiological.



Secondary needs - derived from primary needs, or learned standards.

Examples of secondary needs are: 

The need for power.



The need for achievement.



The need for affiliation.

The theories of Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg (mentioned later) are also concerned with aspects of motivation.

Attitude An attitude is a person's point of view, his (or her) way of looking at something. It is also a person's readiness to react to a situation, and usually a readiness to react in a predetermined way. A person's attitude is positive when it reflects optimism and enthusiasm and he or she looks for good things in others. Such a person would be ready to change and make improvements. A person with a bad attitude will be negative, ready to complain, and dwell on misfortunes and problems. Both good and bad attitudes are contagious. The safety practitioner will seek to foster positive attitudes with regard to safety. As we have seen, the general attitude of the workforce towards safety matters is referred to as the 'safety culture'.

Attitude Surveys In the past only vague attempts have been made in this direction so far as welfare, health and safety are concerned. The increasingly professional approach adopted by most safety practitioners will be directed to using as little subjective judgment as possible. The surveyors must have a clear idea of what attitudes they are seeking to measure. Remember that, although not intended, most attitude surveys do influence the attitudes they are seeking to determine; but it is only a theory, since it cannot be proved. Operational methods for attitude surveys may seek to measure five components for each belief: •

Strength

Here, we are seeking to measure the strength with which the belief is held about various aspects of the job. This measure is taken on a seven-point scale, from "agree totally", through neutral, to "disagree totally". •

Value

Various aspects of the job are evaluated, again on a seven-point scale, ranging from "extremely good", through neutral, to "extremely bad".

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•

Social Beliefs

The focus of the study could be to see how absenteeism or accident rate might be predicted by attitudes to the job. However, behaviour does not depend on inner attitudes alone, but also upon surrounding social pressures - the person's perceptions of what others think he or she should do. These social beliefs must be investigated in order to understand all the factors determining behaviour. •

Overall Attitude

This measure provides an overall rating about various general aspects of the job, as well as an overall assessment of how the job affects the respondent's social life. It is a useful measure as it allows a more generalised attitude to the job to be explored. •

Intended Behaviour

How will people behave, whether they will stay or leave, either within or out of the company? Although hypothetical, this prediction makes an interesting correlation with actual behaviour. Ultimately, people are the key to success. Without the backup of the workforce, progress in all aspects of a business (profits, quality and safety) cannot be achieved. An attitude survey must determine the extent of such backup.

Attitude Formation Attitudes and beliefs give meaning and stability to the world. Our central attitudes are the fundamental beliefs on which our ego is based. They were probably laid down in early childhood and, as such, have stability. Our attitudes are primarily dependent on: 

Early childhood.



Schooling.



Intelligence.



Experiences.



Progress (or the reverse).



Economics.

Our concepts and attitudes, thus assimilated, inevitably incorporate evaluation, i.e. the means by which we assess other thoughts and arrive at our decisions. We develop stereotypes; we define what is 'normal'; we learn from our own experience and that passed on to us by other people. Children assimilate by imitation of and identification with the values of people important to them. Identification shapes central attitudes. The problem for a safety practitioner is to: 

Identify central attitudes.



Determine whether, by any means, the central attitudes can be changed, since their alteration may be material to the implementation of company policy.



Pick out the positive and negative beliefs, essential for upgrading health and safety standards.

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Mental Well-Being and Stress The term 'stress' in engineering denotes a force which produces a strain. Psychological stress in the working environment relates to workplace conditions that have the potential to create harm. Under normal conditions the demands made on the individual in an occupational setting are met by his/her physical and psychological resources. Where there is a balance between demands and resources, there is an optimal state of health and well-being and the individual is able to function at optimal performance. When, however, the demands made upon the individual exceed available resources, the resulting imbalance produces a state of psychological stress. This imbalance can also be produced when demands made on the worker are not enough to utilise available resources. Consequently, stress-related problems can result as much from non-demanding, monotonous work as from highly demanding and pressurising work.

Ill-Health Effects Associated with Stress The physical effects of stress in the workplace can involve a range of symptoms which include: 

Raised heart rate.



Increased sweating.



Headaches.



Dizziness.



Blurred vision.



Aching neck and shoulders.



Skin rashes.



Lowered resistance to infection.

These symptoms are usually short-lived, depending on the nature of the stressful condition. However, prolonged exposure to stress can lead to more serious ill-health conditions. As well as physical effects, stress can also cause behavioural changes such as: 

Increased anxiety and irritability.



Increased alcohol consumption.



Increased smoking.



Difficulty sleeping.



Poor concentration.



Inability to cope with everyday tasks and situations.

Again these symptoms may be short-term in response to an isolated, finite period of excess pressure.

Organisational Culture and Management The organisational culture has a considerable effect on the way individuals perceive and cope with their working environment. As health and safety professionals, we are aware of the long timescale involved in introducing an effective safety culture, so it is no surprise that changes to the organisational culture in response to an identified stress problem will not be achieved overnight. However, there are elements of good management practice that are effective in creating a positive culture, which is less likely to generate avoidable stress:

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

Clear company objectives.



Good communication.



Employee involvement during organisational change.



Good management support, training and development.

Team Working A lot of safety and health activity tends to be aimed at the individual, when it is much better to target the group. If the dominant leader of the group is very safety-conscious, then safety can quickly become a group value.

How Teams Come Together Few people are content to be alone. We group ourselves with those of similar outlook. In the work situation we seldom have very much choice of those with whom we work. A lot of work situations involve group work or committees and discussion groups. Social groups are an essential part of life, since many activities cannot be performed alone. People often join a group for economic or non-social reasons (e.g. a trade union). It is a historical fact that people while at work developed loyalties amongst small groups of fellow workers; and there are a number of examples across industries where work was formally organised in small self-managing teams. However, teamwork is now almost more common than individual work and the individual is the building block to the successful team. Due to the very nature of the organisation and their function, teams will differ in many ways, including size, purpose, and type of work performed, structure, leadership, influence, and decision-making ability. Types of teams include: 

Natural work group.



Management.



Project improvement.



Process redesign or re-engineering.



Cross-functional, including people of various skill levels from throughout the organisation.



New product design teams.

There are teams where everyone has the same skills but people perform different tasks, and teams where people with different expertise each tackle a different part of a task. There are self-managed teams, leader-led teams and teams where leadership is distributed within the team so that everyone leads. Clearly, what is meant by the concept of a 'team' can vary considerably and cover various organisational arrangements.

Effect of Individuals in Teams In large groups the majority scarcely speak at all. There is often a wide variety of personality and talent. There are differences in behaviour and opinions, discussion is restrained, and disagreement is easily expressed. The group tends to create rules and arranges for division of labour. Most people prefer to belong to a fairly small group. Each individual can then exert influence on the group, and speak when they wish to. Yet there is adequate variety of personality to tackle common tasks and for social purposes.

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Managing the Team as Individuals

In whatever way the team is organised, the manager will be responsible for a disparate group of individuals, many of whom may have little in common but their employment by the same organisation. Their needs, priorities and aspirations will all differ – some may be ambitious, others less committed to work. The age, ethnic background, gender and experience of these individuals will all influence their behaviour and responses. Managers must consider how an individual will fit into an existing team in terms of their approach and style when designing a team or adding new members to it. However, this can lead to an attempt to put together a team of clones. Similarity of style or background can lead to a lack of creativity and have a stultifying effect on the team. This is a problem which must be avoided. Group Development

Groups develop hierarchies in terms of the amount of speech and influence permitted. Dominant individuals struggle for status and an order develops. This order might not be the one that management would wish. Low status members talk little, speak politely to senior members, and little notice is taken of what they have to say. A person's position in the group depends on his or her usefulness. The system is maintained. A person who talks too much is stopped. High status members are encouraged to contribute. Group interaction depends on the person's status within the group. When away from the group, a person reverts to his or her own individual personality. A person can be dominant at work, and 'under the thumb' at home. Group Values

It has been observed that by virtue of being a member of a work group, an individual is under pressure to behave in accordance with the values of the group, i.e. in ways which the group finds acceptable. Where group values do not conflict with good safety practice, the constraints operating on the individual may be beneficial. However, in other cases they create resistance to change which is hard to overcome in cohesive groups, where each member reinforces the group values and is, in turn, reinforced in his attitude by the group. Where change is required, it will be more successfully implemented if an analysis of interpersonal behaviour is carried out first. The analysis will reveal the persons, or subgroup, most accepted by the group as a whole. If they are converted to the need for change, the rest of the group is more likely to follow. However, if the person least accepted by the group is converted, the effect may be counterproductive; he or she may be considered an 'outsider' by the rest of the group.

Roles of Individuals in Teams A team requires people who will: 

Maintain the group's momentum.



Generate ideas and solutions.



Record and monitor progress.



Implement and follow up ideas.



Question and review activities.

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All these roles have to be considered and allocated formally or informally. Gaps should be filled by introducing new team members where necessary – this could be from another function or team or may be a new recruit. Building the Different Roles in a Team

Based on research with over 200 teams conducting management business games at the Administrative Staff College, Henley, England, Dr R. Meredith Belbin identified nine team types. People usually have a mix of roles and will have dominant and sub-dominant roles. •

Co-ordinator

The co-ordinator is a person-oriented leader. This person is trusting, accepting, dominant and is committed to team goals and objectives. The co-ordinator is someone tolerant enough always to listen to others, but strong enough to reject their advice. He makes a good chairperson. A weakness is that the co-ordinator can often be regarded as manipulative. •

Shaper

The shaper is a task-focused leader who has a high motivation to achieve and for whom winning is the name of the game. The shaper is committed to achieving ends and will 'shape' others into achieving the aims of the team. He will challenge, argue or disagree and will display aggression in the pursuit of goal achievement. Two or three shapers in a group, according to Belbin, can lead to conflict and in-fighting. •

Plant

The plant is a specialist idea-maker characterised by high IQ and introversion while also being dominant and original. The plant tends to take radical approaches to team functioning and problems. Plants are more concerned with major issues than with details. Weaknesses are a tendency to disregard practical details and argumentativeness. •

Resource Investigator

The resource investigator is the executive who is never in his room, and if he is, he is on the telephone. The resource investigator is someone who explores opportunities and develops contacts. Resource investigators are good negotiators who probe others for information and support and pick up others' ideas and develop them. They are characterised by sociability and enthusiasm and are good at liaison work and exploring resources outside the group. Weaknesses are a tendency to lose interest after initial fascination with an idea, and they are not usually the source of original ideas. •

Company Worker/Implementer

Implementers are aware of external obligations and are disciplined, conscientious and have a good self-image. They tend to be tough-minded and practical, trusting and tolerant, respecting established traditions. They are characterised by low anxiety and tend to work for the team in a practical, realistic way. Implementers figure prominently in positions of responsibility in larger organisations. They tend to do the jobs that others do not want to do and do them well: for example, disciplining employees. Implementers are conservative, inflexible and slow to respond to new possibilities.

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•

Monitor Evaluator

According to the model, this is a judicious, prudent, intelligent person with a low need to achieve. Monitor evaluators contribute particularly at times of crucial decision-making, because they are capable of evaluating competing proposals. The monitor evaluator is not deflected by emotional arguments, is serious minded, tends to be slow in coming to a decision because of a need to think things over and takes pride in never being wrong. Weaknesses are that they may appear dry and boring or even over-critical. They are not good at inspiring others. Those in high-level appointments are often monitor evaluators. •

Team Worker

Team workers make helpful interventions to avert potential friction and enable difficult characters within the team to use their skills to positive ends. They tend to keep team spirit up and allow other members to contribute effectively. Their diplomatic skills together with their sense of humour are assets to a team. They tend to have skills in listening, coping with awkward people and to be sociable, sensitive and people oriented. They can be indecisive in moments of crisis and reluctant to do things that might hurt others. •

Completer Finisher

The completer finisher dots the i's and crosses the t's. He gives attention to detail, aims to complete and to do so thoroughly. Completer finishers make steady effort and are consistent in their work. They are not so interested in the glamour of spectacular success. Weaknesses, according to Belbin, are that they tend to be over anxious and have difficulty letting go and delegating work. •

Specialist

The specialist provides knowledge and technical skills within the team. They may be introverted and anxious but tend to be self-starting, dedicated and committed. Significance of Belbin Team Roles

Where there is an uneven spread of roles in a group, there may be problems in addressing the task allocated. Team members need to be aware of their main team role, know their second best role and see if these can complement the other group members' roles. In this way an effective team can be constructed. There is a tendency in top teams for too many 'Shapers' and 'Plants' with few if any 'Completer Finishers'. This means that everyone likes to talk, wants their own ideas to be accepted by all and relies on others to take the follow-through actions. Another role that often is lacking in top teams is that of 'Monitor Evaluator' − this person may be perceived as trying to prevent things from happening by introducing balance and reality into the discussions.

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Motivational Theory There have been many studies of human behaviour and theories have emerged and developed on how we might motivate others. Since motivation influences productivity, supervisors need to understand what motivates employees to reach their full performance. It is not an easy task to increase employee motivation because employees respond in different ways to their jobs and their organisation's practices. Motivation is the set of processes that drives a person toward a goal. The behaviours expressed are voluntary choices controlled by the individual employee. The supervisor (motivator) needs to be able to influence the factors that motivate employees to higher levels of productivity.

Factors that affect work motivation include individual differences, job characteristics, and organizational practices. Individual differences are the personal needs, values, and attitudes, interests and abilities that people bring to their jobs. Job characteristics are the aspects of the position that determine its limitations and challenges. Organisational practices are the rules, human resources policies, managerial practices, and rewards systems of an organisation. Supervisors must consider how these factors interact to affect employee job performance. Simple Model of Motivation

The purpose of behaviour is to satisfy needs. A need is anything that is required, desired, or useful. A want is a conscious recognition of a need. A need arises when there is a difference in self-concept (the way I see myself) and perception (the way I see the world around me). The presence of an active need is expressed as an inner state of tension from which the individual seeks relief. We will review a few well known motivational theories:

Maslow Behavioural Science is a major part of the writings of psychologists. They put forward ideas to explain why people behave as they do. We are going to be most concerned with motivation and attitudes to instructions and safe working methods, but any practical applications depend upon principles. The following diagram illustrates Maslow's hierarchy of needs. There are, as you would expect, a whole range of other well-known theories regarding personality and motivation. Abraham Maslow suggested five levels of need, which he arranged in a hierarchy as shown in the diagram.

Self-Actualisation

Esteem Task need

Social

Safety /Security

Physiological

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The order in which the needs are listed is significant in two ways. This is the order in which they are said to appear in the normal development of the person. It is also the order in which they have to be satisfied; and if earlier needs are not satisfied, the person may never get around to doing much about the later ones. It might be expected from this theory that people in a poor society will be mostly concerned with physiological and safety needs, whereas those in an affluent society will manage to satisfy those lower needs in the hierarchy and, in many cases, will be preoccupied with the need for self-actualisation. However, Maslow's hierarchy stresses that co-operation can occur only at higher levels between mature individuals, the lower order needs leading to conflict between individuals. Yet primitive tribes seem to co-operate more than advanced societies where conflict between individuals is encouraged. This seems to suggest that there may be a flaw in Maslow's analysis. The need for self-actualisation refers to the person's need to develop his or her full potentialities. Naturally the meaning varies from person to person, for each has different potentialities. For some it means achievement in literary or scientific fields; for others, leadership in politics or the community; for still others, merely living their own lives fully without being unduly restrained by social conventions. 'Self-actualisers' are found among professors, businessmen, political leaders, missionaries, artists and housewives. Not all individuals in any one category are able to achieve self-actualisation; many have numerous unsatisfied needs and, because their achievements are merely compensations, they are left frustrated and unhappy in other respects.

Herzberg Frederick Herzberg, writing in the late 1950s, identified two distinct sets of needs in individuals working in organisations: the need to avoid pain and discomfort and the need to develop psychologically as a person. Herzberg identified two areas of concern for the organisation employing people: •

Hygiene Factors

These include working conditions, company policy and administration, status and security of job, supervision, interpersonal relations and pay. If these are not adequate there will be dissatisfaction, and work output will suffer. Drawing an analogy between a healthy organisation and a healthy person, Herzberg called these "hygiene factors", in the sense that they prevent the 'disease' of job dissatisfaction. •

Motivators

Here, Herzberg included achievement of work tasks; recognition by supervisors of achievement and quality of work; the giving of increased responsibility as a reward for successful work efforts; and the opportunity for psychological development in the work role and growth. Since these are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding, they will work harder to satisfy them through their job. In Herzberg's model it is possible to avoid job dissatisfaction without necessarily achieving job satisfaction. This is possible where an organisation meets a high level of hygiene factors but fails to provide a high level of motivators. However, in recent times Herzberg's theory has been discredited, for a variety of reasons: 

His own data, which was limited, did not support it.



Other data does not support it.

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Despite its shortcomings, the theory continues to attract a great deal of attention and it has stimulated developments in work structuring.

McGregor Douglas McGregor published "The Human Side of Enterprise" in 1960, in which he suggested that traditional management methods (which he called Theory X) might not be the only way to get people motivated. Instead, you could take a different approach (based on Theory Y) and achieve the same if not more. Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control, based on these assumptions: 

People inherently dislike work and will avoid it if at all possible.



Because of this, most people have to be coerced, controlled and threatened with punishment if they are to put in enough effort to achieve the organisation's goals.



Actually the average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, isn't ambitious and simply seeks security.

Theory Y, based on the integration of individual and organisational goals, assumes: 

The physical and mental effort of work is as natural as play or rest, so the average person doesn't inherently dislike work.



Most of us are capable of self-direction and self-control, so those factors don't necessarily have to come from elsewhere.



Our commitment to an objective is a function of the rewards for its achievement.



The average person learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility.



Most people have a capacity for imagination, ingenuity and creativity.



The intellectual potential of most people is under-used in modern industrial life.

Theory Y is not a soft option. In fact it can take as much management effort as Theory X, but the effects of a Theory Y approach will last longer. The Theory X manager is a dying breed (although it has to be said he's not yet extinct), and Theory Y lies behind most modern approaches to motivation. Nowadays the terminology is used as a polite way of referring to the old command-and-control approach to management: the trouble is the diehard Theory X manager won't pick up the subtle criticism!

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Title

Page

Improving Communication

USING FORMAL AND INFORMAL CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION ................................................................... 3 FORMAL CHANNELS................................................................................................................................................. 3 INFORMAL CHANNELS .............................................................................................................................................. 8 PROVIDING INFORMATION INTERNALLY AND EXTERNALLY ........................................................................... 10 PROVIDING HEALTH AND SAFETY INFORMATION ............................................................................................................ 10 DEVELOPMENT OF A HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM WITHIN THE WORKPLACE ...................................... 10 TYPES OF DATA WITHIN A HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM .............................................................. 12 FACILITATING REPORTING BY EMPLOYEES..................................................................................................... 13 WHAT EMPLOYEES CAN/SHOULD REPORT .................................................................................................................... 13 HOW EMPLOYEES CAN/SHOULD REPORT ..................................................................................................................... 13 PROTECTION FOR 'WHISTLE-BLOWERS' ...................................................................................................................... 13 MAKING APPROPRIATE USE OF DIFFERENT MODES OF COMMUNICATION ..................................................... 14 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION .................................................................................................................................... 14 ADVANTAGES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION .................................................................................................................. 22 DISADVANTAGES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION.............................................................................................................. 24 ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION................................................................................................................ 24 DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................... 25 POSTURE ........................................................................................................................................................... 25 EXPRESSION ....................................................................................................................................................... 25 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION ............................................................................................................................... 26 BARRIERS TO GOOD COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................... 27 JARGON ............................................................................................................................................................ 27 LEVEL OF LANGUAGE ............................................................................................................................................. 28 PERCEPTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 28 SELECTIVE RECEPTION .......................................................................................................................................... 28 EMOTIONS ......................................................................................................................................................... 29 SENSORY DEFECTS ............................................................................................................................................... 29 SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................................................. 31

BSC International Diploma – Element 3A | Developing a Positive ealth and Safety Culture

BSC International Diploma | Unit 3 Element 3A | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture Study Unit 3A3 | Improving Communication Learning Outcomes When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:

➢

Make use of formal and informal channels to improve communication in the workplace.

➢

Ensure that information is provided internally and externally as necessary.

➢

Explain how reporting by employees can be facilitated.

➢

Make appropriate use of different modes of communication.

➢

Explain the barriers to effective communication.

Unit 7:

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Using Formal and Informal Channels of Communication Many formal and informal routes of communication evolve within an organisation. Because it is not always possible to guarantee the effectiveness of the informal routes, a number of more formal routes must be established to ensure that safety issues are progressed. It is important not to underestimate the benefits that can be achieved through the informal routes and as such these should be encouraged to complement the more formal approach.

Formal Channels The more formal means of communication are likely to include: 

Board meetings with a set health and safety agenda item.



Safety committee meetings.



Health and safety policy.



Formal reports.



Training sessions.



Written company procedures.

Reports These are usually 'one-offs' and deal with irregular problems and occurrences. They vary in length from half a page or so to several sheets of typescript. Examples include internal accident reports. With no set list of questions to answer, a common difficulty is that the writer is in danger of losing sight of the purpose of the report. A good guiding principle is to think of the readers and the reasons why the report is being prepared. If the reader is to understand and accept the contents, it should be as concise as its purpose will allow and not 'padded out' to try to impress - this will only bore him and he might miss valuable points. Statements should be accurate and substantiated, otherwise doubts will form in the reader's mind. In summary, be: 

Brief.



Accurate.



Clear.

Meetings A meeting is any gathering of people who convene to discuss an objective or set of objectives which they have in common or to which they can make a positive contribution. Formal meetings are those which are expected of the organisation, either by law or best practice. They include Board meetings and meetings of standing committees of the Board. Formal meetings usually have standing orders which determine how they should proceed. The meeting must have a Chairperson and (nearly always) a Secretary. Advantages of Meetings These include: 

The meeting is a tried and tested way of generating new ideas.

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

Meetings ensure that issues which are important to the organisation are considered regularly.



A properly constructed group will bring together different people with a variety of knowledge and skills.



The meeting facilitates a positive exchange of views. Though different individuals may adopt their own particular stance on any issue, the meeting is a means of bringing about consensus.



Meetings encourage participation in matters of importance. In turn, participation and involvement can promote greater motivation.



The meeting can be used as a means of 'cascade' - communicating information quickly and consistently.

Disadvantages of Meetings These include: 

Any meeting by definition takes up the valuable time of each individual. If the individual is only required to make a marginal contribution to the proceedings, his attendance may not be cost-effective.



The objectives of the meeting may not be clear. In addition, different individuals may attend with their own 'axes to grind', making consensus impossible.



Those attending may be insufficiently skilled in communicating to achieve the desired results.



The meeting may lack sufficiently strong leadership to bring about an efficient exchange of ideas.



Many meetings digress from the main points to be considered, especially when important business issues which are not on the agenda are shared by those attending.



Some people come to a meeting with a preconceived view that it will be a waste of time, meaning they may not be open to new ideas.



The meeting may suffer if only a limited number of group members have a required level of technical competence to resolve the issues before them. This can occur when highly complex matters which need the co-operation of all are discussed but very few have specialist expertise.



The meeting can sometimes be dominated by those who can take decisions and put their views strongly, giving the impression that the outcome is a foregone conclusion.

Designing Meetings •

Selection of Members Because meetings can be time-consuming and expensive, we need to consider carefully who should attend a meeting or become a member of a committee, or what mix of participants to invite: −

Has the person the necessary knowledge and skills to make a positive contribution to the proceedings?

−

Will the person be sufficiently motivated, first to take an interest in the deliberations, and second, to actually turn up and participate fully?

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−

Can the person afford the time?

−

Is the mixture of knowledge and skills balanced so that there is a true representation of interested parties?

−

Is the mixture of personalities correct, so that there is a balance between those with analytical skills, task leaders, extroverts, introverts, creative thinkers and so on?

Sometimes a committee will include a person for prestige reasons. This is acceptable as long as the inclusion of the individual is meaningful. If the person cannot attend through pressure of time, he may be able to appoint an alternate, usually a deputy to attend in a delegated capacity. At formal meetings, most of those attending know why they are there and what contribution they can make. Most important is that they come prepared to give of their best in terms of:

•

−

Personal knowledge and skill.

−

Drive and motivation necessary to bring about action.

Controlling Members' Input There are always positive and negative influences in a meeting. Sometimes an individual may try to 'shoot down' the ideas of others with which he disagrees. Worse, the political person will attempt to influence others before the meeting takes place, creating a lobby group within the meeting. The more positive group member will be open-minded about the ideas of others, even if he is sceptical about their practicality or underlying motives. Sometimes an idea which appears outrageous can be developed into a practical solution if the appropriate level of support is given to the discussion. Many meetings involve individuals who are reluctant to speak out, but there is little point in them being present if they are unwilling or unable to contribute. In contrast, some members of a meeting may like the sound of their own voice and dominate the discussion. We shall look at how members can be controlled later when we discuss the skills of a good chairperson.

Preparing an Agenda All formal meetings should have an agenda. An agenda is a list of 'things to be done' or a written statement of matters to be considered at the meeting. Often this is circulated in advance, though in a rapidly changing situation it may be 'laid round the table'. Some meetings are invalid if a notice is not issued according to requirements. For example, the Annual General Meeting of a company requires a statutory period of notice. The agenda will normally serve as a running order, starting with 'apologies for absence' and ending with 'any other business' or the date of the next meeting. The agenda ensures that: 

Everyone knows the administrative arrangements for the meeting.



Everyone can identify how they can contribute to the meeting and come prepared - this is especially important to individuals who are expected to 'lead' on specific items.



The order of business is known - those who are under pressure may then be able to arrange to attend just the part of the meeting which is of concern to them.



The Chairperson has a framework for the meeting.

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The agenda is normally drawn up by the Secretary to the meeting, the Chairperson or both. In some meetings it is useful for the agenda to indicate: 

How long the meeting will last.



Particular items which are expected to dominate the discussion.

Formal meetings may consider some or all of the following: 

Members

The Chairperson may introduce new members of the group or committee. If the meeting is the first such event, he may invite those attending to introduce themselves briefly.



Apologies

The Secretary will read out the names of those who have notified nonattendance in advance. Sometimes all absent members will be included here on the assumption that they would have attended had it been possible to do so.



Minutes

The minutes are a detailed record of the meeting. It is standard practice either to read aloud the minutes of the last meeting or to have them circulated in advance, or both.



Matters arising

The meeting then considers anything arising from the minutes of the last meeting which is not on the agenda for the current one.



New business

The meeting moves on to the main items for consideration on the day. The outcomes of the various items can be: −

A resolution to take certain actions or decision to take no action.

−

A recommendation, usually if the meeting is not empowered to take decisions on a given matter.

−

A decision to gather more information or consider the matter next time.



Any other business

The meeting discusses anything else of relevance to the proceedings. This may be discussed fully if time permits or may be considered as something for the next meeting.



Next meeting

The meeting is declared closed and the date of the next meeting agreed.

Preparing for the Meeting The meeting should be planned well in advance if possible (although sometimes emergency situations dictate that this cannot be the case). The person calling the meeting should: 

Decide the purpose.



Decide matters to be considered and invite relevant additional items from others.



Decide who should attend.



Decide date, time and venue.



From the above, formulate an agenda and send it out to participants.



Make arrangements for the venue to be available.



Have all necessary supporting papers and equipment available.



Decide who will record the proceedings, if no arrangements are already in place.

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Skills of the Chairperson The Chairperson has several important duties: 

The Chairperson should ensure that the meeting is properly convened and constituted.



He should lead the meeting according to the pre-set agenda, ensuring that every item is covered as thoroughly as possible. On contentious issues, he may apply a guillotine, which limits the discussion to a set period of time at the end of which a vote is taken or the matter deferred.



The Chairperson should preserve order throughout the meeting, ensuring that business proceeds smoothly. If conflict arises, the Chairperson should remain impartial but firm enough to control the proceedings.



Preserving order also means that (ideally) only one person should speak at any time. When discussion becomes animated, the Chairperson can insist that those wishing to speak do so 'through the Chair'.



Some members of the meeting may raise points of order. These are constitutional issues, such as whether the meeting has a mandate to discuss a matter or whether it has authority to pass a resolution. The Chairperson should be in a position to decide on these matters immediately, if necessary by consulting the Secretary on standing orders.



Although the Chairperson will have personal opinions on matters discussed, the position adopted should be an impartial one. In the event of a tied vote, the Chairperson can sometimes exercise a casting vote to ensure that a decision is taken.



The Chairperson should ensure that all who have a contribution to make get the opportunity to do so. Many meetings involve individuals who are reluctant to speak out the Chairperson should encourage them to contribute fully by addressing questions directly to them.



Similarly, there may be members of the committee who like the sound of their own voice! The Chairperson has to ensure that such persons do not monopolise the discussion to the detriment of others, if necessary confronting them directly.



When a contentious decision has been taken, the Chairperson should be capable of gaining the commitment of all attending, even those who disagree with the final outcome. This is highly important, as those who attend meetings are often charged with the responsibility of 'selling' the decisions to their colleagues.

Policies and Procedures To be successful, an organisation has to have clearly defined objectives and be positive in aiming to achieve them in the most efficient manner. Where this positive direction is lacking, an organisation is unlikely to succeed. It is important to distinguish clearly between objectives and policies: 

Objectives are statements of what an organisation aims to achieve.



Policies are statements concerning how the objectives are to be achieved.

One of the most important documents relating to health and safety issues within an organisation is the Health and Safety Policy. This document should be the cornerstone of health and safety management, setting out what the company's health and safety targets are, who within the company will help achieve those targets and how they will be achieved.

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

The policy statement will describe top management's commitment to ensuring good health and safety standards within the workplace and will also often remind employees of their responsibilities for health and safety.



The organisation section will identify who has specific health and safety responsibilities within the company and will also usually lay down general responsibilities for employees.



The arrangements section will give details on how health and safety issues are to be addressed within the organisation. It is common for the arrangements to be produced as separate work instructions, guidelines or procedures.

Templates and Forms Many organisations make use of standard templates and forms to assist in the compilation and circulation of information. Routine reports are usually printed or duplicated forms supplied in blocks or pads. They have a standard layout according to the subject matter, for example, accident report forms. Other examples include safety inspection samplings and maintenance reports. By completing routine reports accurately and promptly, a valuable contribution can be made to the efficiency and reputation of your company. In the case of accidents it would ensure that matters could be dealt with quickly and more effectively. The purpose of a standard report form is that it enables essential information to be given in a concise manner. This facilitates any subsequent investigation and, in turn, recommendations on the action to be taken. Because the information required in such reports generally falls into a pattern, the questions asked will be the same each time, and in answering questions you should take into account the following general points: 

Read the form carefully and decide just what it is that you are being asked to record.



Ensure that the information you give is accurate to the best of your knowledge. If necessary, check any facts before committing them to writing.



Include all the relevant facts. Unfortunately many forms are poorly designed - if there is insufficient space for your response, then give it on a separate piece of paper and attach this to the main document.



Sometimes the form will ask for your comments, conclusions or reasons, and every effort should be made to ensure that they are properly presented in a logical fashion.



Your statements should be written legibly. They will be worthless if they cannot be read.

Informal Channels The organisational chart shows the formal organisation of a company and indicates the direction of communications. There will also be formal working groups and committees. In a large organisation this can be cumbersome and some decision-making processes use informal routes. The safety practitioner needs to be aware of these informal methods.

Grapevine and Social Groups Within any organisation there is a 'grapevine'. This is usually very effective in passing gossip and information. Since the source is difficult to trace, the information might not be totally reliable. Even the Government is said to organise 'information leaks' as a way of spreading information.

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The group is one of the most powerful forces in any organisation. As well as the formally convened group, there will inevitably be informal groups of friends and colleagues who can bring positive energy to any task. So, superimposed on the formal organisational structure is an informal structure of communication links and functional working groups. These cross all the barriers of management status and can be based on: 

Family relationships.



Out-of-work activities, such as church, golf club, or the local pub.



Valuable experience or expertise.

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Providing Information Internally and Externally Providing Health and Safety Information You will see as we progress that the obligation to provide information is almost multidirectional. Employers must obviously provide it to employees, but what about contractors, visitors, customers, temporary workers, etc.? What form should such 'information' take? The language in which it is printed assumes great importance in a multi-ethnic workforce. Any information must be capable of being understood by the employees to whom it is addressed. It almost goes without saying that there is little point in having a safe system of work, safe machinery and safe management policies unless management or the employer provides the workforce, contractors and visitors with the necessary information to continue to operate safely in the working environment. There are therefore a considerable number of statutory obligations concerned with the provision of safety information. Not all the obligations are concerned with the employer's duties. The provision of information is a complex problem and is worth looking at in some detail. We need to consider: who must provide the information, for what purpose, and to whom it is to be conveyed.

Development of a Health and Safety Management Information System within the Workplace One of the early criticisms of safety management in the UK 30 years ago was that employers complied with information requirements by exhibiting in the workplace closely-printed copies of, or extracts from, factory legislation which, even if legible, were almost completely incomprehensible to the employee. As explained earlier, it is essential that information must be relevant and capable of being understood even to the extent of providing the information if necessary in a number of languages. It also has to be made available for reference purposes by management and for inspection purposes by inspectors, safety representatives, and other interested parties. There is an obvious need, therefore, for a management information system in the workplace. Sound information management is based on: 

The collection of information from external sources.



The documentation of policy, organisation statements, performance standards, rules and procedures (this would include risk assessments, audit, inspection, test results, and accident statistics, etc.).



Provision of systems for cascading information.



Use of posters, bulletins, newspapers, etc.

The starting point in the development of the system, ideally, is to appoint someone with the professional competence to manage it. In many organisations this might be an existing manager or it may be a dedicated safety professional. Whoever it is, safety managers must keep abreast of developments in legislation and current practice through membership of a professional association(s) and arrange for the collection and systematic documentation of relevant developments in health and safety. They most certainly subscribe to a number of professional publications and attend courses and seminars to maintain "continuing professional development" status. They will also be responsible for the collection and documentation of internal health and safety information, the safety policy, risk assessments, test results, accident reports and statistics, and health surveillance. They must be able to interpret legislation, manufacturers' instructions and a variety of other technical or semi-legal documents and

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translate them into "relevant and comprehensible" information. The information collected, both externally and internally, must then be used, like any other intelligence, as a management tool for the efficient running of the organisation. By reference to the following figure it is possible to see how external and internal health and safety materials are combined, processed and turned into user-friendly information for use by company employees and contractors, visitors, customers, etc.

ORGANISATION

Internal Information Sources

External Information Sources

H & S Information Process/Retrieval System

External End-User

Internal End-User

Internal and External Health and Safety Materials

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Types of Data within a Health and Safety Management Information System Information Sources EXTERNAL INFORMATION SOURCES Legislation Codes of Practice Guidance Notes International Standards Manufacturers' instructions Leaflets and publications Safety organisations Industrial bodies

INTERNAL INFORMATION SOURCES H and S Policy document Compliance data Cost data Risk assessments Monitoring results: Noise Dust Lighting Atmospheric, etc.

Job descriptions Job safety analyses Results of inspections/audits Accident and ill-health reports/statistics Training records Management system performance data Health and safety information thus derived can be assimilated into the organisation and held centrally. The relevant portions can then be redistributed throughout the organisation or to those departments which have a specific requirement. Information can be filed manually or stored electronically for ease of retrieval and copying. Information generated internally is probably a bulkier problem and is best managed by way of a computerised system.

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Facilitating Reporting by Employees The main purpose of workplace health and safety is to prevent injury or ill-health to employees and damage to structures and materials. One important part of this is to ensure that employees are informed of hazards in the workplace. Each workplace activity creates its own hazards. While everybody should know what they are doing, it is often the case that they are not aware of the work going on around them. This can lead to a very dangerous situation. In order to achieve as safe a workplace as possible, it is important that people are informed of all hazards associated with the workplace. Accidents can happen because people do not know about the hazards. For example, if an electric drill is dropped and damaged or something is spilled on the floor, then these must be reported to prevent somebody getting an electric shock or slipping on the spillage.

What Employees Can/Should Report Employees should report both hazards and unsafe behaviour. It is very often the case that it is a person working on a particular job who notices the hazards. He may see that a ladder is not being used properly or that unprotected cables are lying across a road that is used by vehicles. He may notice that people are smoking near a petrol store or that the electrical tool that he is using has a damaged plug. If these facts are not reported, they may not be put right. This, in turn, could lead to an accident with someone being injured. Because one person has seen a hazard does not necessarily mean that other people will see it. By reporting the hazard, an accident may be prevented.

How Employees Can/Should Report Any hazard that has been identified should be brought to the attention of management. This might be the shift supervisor, chargehand or line manager. It is then their responsibility to ensure that action is taken so that any risk is reduced to a minimum.

Protection for 'Whistle-Blowers' Employees are usually the first to know if there is anything wrong in the health and safety of an organisation, but are often reluctant to voice their concerns publicly. This may be because they will be seen as disloyal and labelled as troublemakers, which may jeopardise their jobs. If an employee discloses confidential information, then the employer may choose to discipline or dismiss the individual for breach of contract. Failure to recognise information received this way is likely to have contributed to many disasters. There is evidence that employees had expressed doubts about safety procedures prior to the capsize of the Herald of Free Enterprise, in Zeebrugge in 1987, and the explosion of the Piper Alpha Platform, off the North Sea in 1988, which together led to the loss of over 300 lives. 'Whistle-blowing' can be used to refer to situations where employees wish to protest about a health and safety practice, such as an employer reducing the number of employees in the health and safety section in a high risk business. It is essential that employees are given the right not to be subjected to any detriment or act, or any deliberate failure to act, by their employer due to a disclosure made on health & safety grounds.

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Making Appropriate Use of Different Modes of Communication Communication may be defined as:

"imparting, conveying or exchanging information, ideas or opinions by the use of speech, writing or graphics".

Types of Communication Verbal Communication One of the main skills that a safety officer can use to get his message across is the spoken word. This is not really surprising since it is a skill developed from infancy. In fact it is the easiest, quickest and most efficient method of communicating ideas, orders and instructions to others. It does not take too much trouble to reach someone and talk with them face-to-face. If you are to have any success in your risk management programme, you must be able to: 

Motivate people - get them going.



Instruct people in the work to be done.



Explain problems, events, accidents, etc., to others.



Advise on the control and correction of others' activities.



Know what is going on.

Oral discussion is the method most in use, because it is natural, universal, flexible and effective as a means of transmitting information between individuals. Conversation should be logical, pointing at all times towards a planned objective, and terminate with complete understanding between both parties of the topic under discussion. Whether or not agreement is reached matters less. It pays to start with a point which will establish common ground from which the conversation can develop. Remember that each individual will start off by seeing things from his own point of view, the one which interests or affects him most. It may be appropriate to acknowledge this viewpoint and start from there. The conversation should then progress clearly, and as clear arguments are the product of clear thinking, it pays to have worked out your thoughts before starting. Always avoid jargon which is not familiar to the listeners and use simple straightforward language, which everyone will be capable of understanding. Emotive language needs to be used with care. Using labels such as troublemaker, accident-prone, disaster, etc. where they are not fully justified, merely clouds real issues. Communication Failure There are a number of reasons why oral communication may fail: •

Haste Too often we speak first and think afterwards. It is not until we see the reaction that we realise that we have made a mistake! Perhaps you can think of some personal examples.

•

Ambiguity Ambiguity occurs when there are two or more possible meanings of a word or sentence. This could obviously lead to serious misunderstandings. Consider this example: 'The director fired the worker. He was known to be aggressive.'

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Who is known to be aggressive – the worker or the director? •

Inattention In a conversation you will frequently have to listen to the other person. Listening needs patience, flexibility of mind, a willingness to forget for the moment what you are thinking about, and the ability to focus your attention on what the other person is saying.

•

Stress Stress may lead us to use inappropriate language or to judge a situation incorrectly, resulting in remarks which we later regret.

•

Lack of Verification and Checks This emphasises the importance of the 'follow-up' action after giving instructions to prevent the recurrence of a particular accident or dangerous condition. All too often, the assumption is made that our instruction has been well given and that any normal, intelligent person should understand and obey it. People are easily distracted, forgetful, or simply do not realise the significance of your instruction, which underlines the importance of following up to see that instructions are carried out in the way intended.

•

Overconfidence It is all too easy to take our ability to use the spoken word for granted, which is understandable; most of us have been doing it successfully for quite a few years! So it is surprising to learn that as much as 70% or so of our total communication is misunderstood, rejected, distorted, or forgotten. It means that more than half of the communications in a working day are inefficient, which is not really so surprising when we realise that we are barraged by an enormous variety of environmental stimuli every moment of our lives.

•

Interpretation The language of communication may not be a listener's first language. Even if it is, the person may not have a grasp of words or jargon which are remote from daily use. Thus, any communication about reality is not, and cannot be, the same as reality itself. Even the most accurate statements only approach, but never reach, a perfect description. Abstracting leaves out details and characteristics at each level. Thus, in conversation, all too often we hear only what we want to hear.

Giving Oral Orders and Instructions An order or instruction is not simply a matter of telling someone to do something; it is much more explicit. Put into words, it should indicate some or all of the following aspects of the task to be performed: 

What is to be done.



Who is to do it.



Why it needs to be done.



When it is to be done.



How it is to be done.



Where it is to be done.

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Just which of these aspects will come into any particular order or instruction will depend on the situation and on the person who is to do the job. The major problem before giving an order is to decide which points are important and should therefore be included. In most situations, the what and why will be the most important factors. Naturally, workers will question instructions; after all, they have a point of view and should at least be listened to. Since the efficiency of their performance will depend on their willingness to go along with the instructions, telling them why they need to follow a certain instruction and putting them in the picture, helps to get the necessary co-operation. Types of Oral Instruction Since circumstances and people vary infinitely, we use three basic kinds of instruction to suit the conditions: 

Direct instructions.



Discretionary instructions.



Implied instructions.

•

Direct Instructions These amount to "Do as I say" and should be used where safety is of vital importance. It is better, however, to give a reason when giving the instruction, such as "Don't leave oily rags on that electric motor casing! They might get hot enough to catch fire".

•

Discretionary Instructions Sometimes it is better to leave someone who is receiving instructions with a certain amount of discretion as to how they are to be obeyed. This is especially so when one has to satisfy oneself that, for example, a particular supervisor knows his job. In such cases it is possible to make a request and see what the result is. For example, "Look here John, I wish you would try to get young Smith to keep his bench tidy". Some workers, especially skilled workers and craftsmen, might react in an adverse manner if told to do (or not do) something. Skilled workers like to know that their skill is appreciated. Consequently, one might say, "Can you do this job for the Development Department as quickly as possible?", at the same time handing over the work sheet. Discretionary instruction can also be used when time is not crucial. Provided the worker is told the exact completion date when the job should be finished, he can be left to choose when and how to do it.

•

Implied Instructions "We shall have a visit from the Inspector if we go on like this", could be taken to imply that something should be done about safety. In situations where relationships are particularly good and where everybody does his job in an intelligent manner, such implied instructions may be safely given, knowing full well the message will get home. It is frequently a better way to ensure that something is done, because it does not antagonise anybody.

Speaking •

Pronunciation Clear speech, for example using the correct pronunciation for words and taking time to say words and phrases properly, is essential.

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Accents can play a part in this. Take care to speak slowly if the members of your audience do not have the same accent as yourself or may be unfamiliar with it. Failure to speak clearly results in ambiguity and misunderstanding. Avoid the following problems of articulation:



−

Mumbling.

−

Hesitating.

−

Reading every word like a 'robot'.

−

Missing out the beginning or ends of words.

Structure of Argument If you plan what you have to say and understand both the points you intend to make and the potential responses to them, then you ought to be able to express your ideas and proposals clearly and simply. Your ideas should follow a logical sequence and allow the listener the opportunity to consider each point in turn. A circular or apparently random argument can be difficult to follow in oral communication, where there is no opportunity to refer back to previous ideas without constant interruptions for questions.

•

Emphasis You may choose to emphasise important words or syllables, much as you may highlight or underline written text. Emphasis may change the meaning of an entire sentence. For example, consider the effect of changing the emphasis in the following sentence: −

We may need to improve reliability by 10%.

−


−


The way in which you emphasise meaning will have a profound impact. •

Tone The tone of your voice indicates your emotional response and enthusiasm for what you are saying. Consider the following sentence and say it to yourself as if you are amazed, curious, angry, disapproving or sympathetic. The words don't change but your tone and the stress you place on particular words will.

"When did you do that?" •

Volume Make sure that people can hear you, but don't shout or heckle them. The volume of a person's voice usually depends on the distance between speaker and listener and the nature of what he is saying.

•

Rhythm and Pace There is no need to rush any oral presentation. Plan what you have to say for the time allocated and adopt a pace that allows you to achieve this. Similarly, lengthy pauses between points or phrases are extremely irritating.

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•

Paralinguistics This is a long word for the noises people make when they are listening to someone else speak and wish to show agreement – 'uh-huh', 'mm' and 'oh', for example. Like nodding and smiling, these are a useful way of showing somebody that you are following what he is saying. Remember that it is not enough simply to listen to what is being said - you must also show that you are listening (and that you understand) if the communication process is to be fully effective. Clarifying or repeating what the speaker has said demonstrates that you are actively engaging with and listening to what he is saying.

Listening Many people imagine that listening is something that just happens. However, it is important that you distinguish between hearing and listening. Hearing is what might happen when you have the radio playing in the background whilst you do something else. Listening is an active rather than a passive process. You need to engage your mind, focus on the information the speaker is passing on to you, and then interpret and organise it in your memory. Developing your listening skills helps you to: 

Obtain necessary and relevant information.



Avoid time-wasting by asking unnecessary questions.



Show interest and understanding to the speaker.



Maintain good relations with both colleagues and external contacts.

Positive listening involves two elements: 

Attentive listening in order to be able to identify, select and interpret information and meaning.



Empathetic listening to attune oneself with others and to seek common ground on attitudes, feelings and emotions (empathy is 'putting oneself in someone else's shoes').

There are a number of techniques available to enable you to focus properly on the communication and develop empathy: 

In situations where it is possible to plan ahead, such as a telephone call which is expected or a training course, write down your objectives or preferred outcomes in advance and make a note as each is addressed or discussed.



Actively concentrate on what the other person is saying and make a conscious attempt to understand. This means actively listening for key facts or points, trying to identify and interpret the message in your own words and committing the interaction to memory. Being a patient listener and letting the person speak without interruption helps this.



Listen for feelings and emotions on the part of the speaker, as this helps in understanding the speaker's point of view. As well as listening to what is actually said, you also need to pay attention to what is not said and to observing non-verbal signals (gestures, movements and so on). These all provide clues about the speaker's attitudes, etc.



Be positive in your responses. This involves looking to advance the communication rather than stall it by disagreement. In dealing with complaints, it is particularly important not to argue but, instead, look for solutions.

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

Provide feedback to the speaker. This can be done either by verbal responses or through body language (see later) and has a number of effects: −

Asking questions allows you to check or develop your understanding or seek clarification, as well as letting the speaker know that you are concentrating on, and at least attempting to follow, his remarks.

−

Summarising your understanding at what seem to be key points or breaks in the communication (perhaps by paraphrasing the message as understood in your own words) allows you to check that understanding, as well as providing the opportunity for the speaker to correct misunderstandings.

−

Using appropriate body language can provide a stream of positive signals back to the speaker. This shows, continuously, that you are being attentive and empathetic with the speaker.

Non-Verbal Communication Writing It will almost always be necessary to produce information or proposals on important matters in written form. A report has been defined as "A written record of activities based on authoritative sources, written by a qualified person and directed towards a predetermined group". The purpose of submitting a written report to an executive is to enable him to become acquainted with the facts, formulate an opinion and consider the overall effects on the whole organisation of certain decisions. Therefore, a good logical sequence of subject matter must be the aim, and it should be presented with brevity and clarity using short, coherent paragraphs. Interest will be maintained if the reader can readily see the ideas which are being submitted. Short sentences and rhetorical questions will help to increase impact and avoid misunderstandings. Repetition of important facts by presenting them in a slightly different way, for example by using a diagram, will add emphasis. Above all else, the information must be accurate and truthful and, where possible, backed up by supporting evidence. If a purely personal opinion is given, this must be clearly stated. The most favoured method for supplying additional information, i.e. graphs, drawings, charts, etc., is to show these at the back of the body of the report itself (in appendices), so as not to interrupt the main flow. A concise, well presented report will permit the reader to reach a conclusion from which recommendations can be made as a firm basis for subsequent action - this is the objective of a report. If this objective is not achieved, the report is a useless exercise. 

Memos or internal documents consisting of a few paragraphs should be kept simple and to the point.



E-mail has an important place for the swift transmission of the written word. Messages which include pictures and sound can be sent worldwide very cheaply. Care must be taken that both the sender and the receiver have compatible equipment. The use of email is no different from other media in that the message must be prepared in a way that is suitable for the intended audience. Messages sent by e-mail can range from the formal when writing to an important business contact, to the very informal when communicating with close colleagues.

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

Text messaging is now a very popular method of social communication, but is also of value in the workplace. It provides a fast means of communication where telephone contact is not possible (persons involved in meetings, training sessions); where a full and immediate telephone conversation is not necessary but a reasonably quick response is required (confirmation of meetings, travel arrangements, etc.); or where fast written confirmation is necessary (data or facts) but there is no access to computer facilities for email.



When reports are required by management, a formal report with a purely impersonal approach may be required and pronouns such as 'I', 'we', 'me', etc. should be omitted in order to enhance the format.

Reading The ability to grasp the salient points of a text is an increasingly important communication skill. Not only do you need to recognise and interpret bias, but you must also select information which is of use to you. Scanning or skimming text is a technique best acquired with practice, but by recognising key words and phrases the importance of the text in a report or article can be restricted to one relevant section instead of laboriously poring over each page. Look out for the gaps in the text. What information is missing? Why is this the case? What people choose not to let you know is as revealing as what they tell you. Use written material to your advantage. There are certain techniques which you can use to develop the effectiveness of your reading, such as selecting the right reading material, and reading efficiently and effectively. •

Identifying the Right Material You need to determine whether a report or publication is going to give you the right information for your task, but it would be surprising if this were the only criterion you identified. Particularly if you have a choice, a number of other criteria come into play. The sorts of things to consider include: −

Is the topic you are interested in precisely covered by the text - i.e. does it provide the right information?

−

Does it cover the topic at an appropriate level - is it too basic, in which case you will not get what you are looking for, or is it too complex or detailed, in which case you will not find it easy to pick out what you want (and probably won't read it)?

−

Is the text arranged in a way which makes it easy to find what you need?

−

Is the style of writing such that you would want to read it?

You may have other criteria. We have assumed, for instance, that the text is accessible in the way in which you want to use it (for example, you can take it away to study). We have also discounted how big the item is - there is always a tendency to favour something that looks as if it contains the right information in a smaller form, but well-organised large texts can be just as easy to use. The above list, though, contains the main criteria, and also in their order of importance. But how do you check quickly that the text does in fact meet them? There are a number of ways: −

Read the introductory information about the text.

−

Have a look at any conclusions or summaries.

−

Read a few pages.

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Checking the suitability of material in this way allows you to concentrate your time on studying relevant information. •

Efficient and Effective Reading Lack of time is the main deterrent to reading. Once you have identified the material which contains information you need in the form that you want it, you need to use your reading time as efficiently as possible. There are a number of approaches to this: −

Be selective - you may not have to read the whole text, or at least not in the order it is written in. Use the contents listing and index to select the most relevant sections on which to concentrate.

−

Skim the text first - get an idea of the general content of a particular section by flicking through it looking at sub-headings, figures, the first few words of paragraphs, etc. You can get a good idea of what is in it from this, as a basis either for determining relevance or for detailed study.

−

Concentrate on reading - this may seem obvious, but it is surprising how often our concentration wanders, particularly when tackling difficult subject matter. One technique which can help is to use a pen or pencil to track down the page while you are reading - this tends to keep you focused on the text.

−

Make notes - very few people can remember everything they read in enough detail for it to be helpful, and it is easier to refer to notes, rather than the text itself, when you start to use the information.

People have all sorts of different approaches to reading - from very wide-ranging and exhaustive to highly selective and specific to a particular topic. Both, and all stages in between, are equally valid. If it works for you - use it. Do not be put off by the approaches suggested by other people if you are happy with your own. Body Language By 'body language' we mean the messages, intentional or unintentional, which are sent to the receiver of a communication by the physical actions of the sender. It may be easiest to think about this topic under five headings: •

Contact The amount of bodily contact between people tells us a lot about their relationship. Clearly, it will be minimal during a business encounter, but it is still important. A good, firm handshake can signal the beginning and end of a meeting, and also signify trust and good faith between the two people involved. Approach other forms of contact with caution. While some people will respond to a pat on the arm or slap on the back, others may find it intrusive or even offensive, even though you intend it as a sign of friendship.

•

Proximity Get to know how the people you work with feel about proximity. Some people find it disturbing to be approached too closely, while others welcome friendly and informal seating arrangements. Think carefully about this when arranging the layout of a room.

•

Orientation By this we mean the direction in which your body is facing. If you face the person who is speaking to you, you give the impression that you are really listening to him. On the

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other hand, if you face away, then it looks as though you have no real interest in what he is saying. Be aware of important signs like this when conducting oral exchanges. If someone gets up and walks over to the window during a conversation, it may suggest that he is bored with the conversation; but it may also suggest that he is upset or angry and does not want to let you see it. Look for such responses throughout oral exchanges - and be aware of your own orientations too. They can reveal a great deal about your attitudes and opinions. •

Gestures These are fairly obvious, intentional forms of communicating. However, as well as the usual meaning, shaking the head with a frowning expression may suggest puzzlement or, accompanied by closed eyes, it can suggest anger and frustration. Nodding and shaking the head are also important techniques when listening to someone. They show that you are listening carefully and responding to what is being said. Try to develop the habit of using these signs in an unobtrusive way to indicate that you are interested in and understand what is being said. It will give the speaker confidence and help him to express his ideas fully and freely. A more general kind of non-verbal communication concerns movement of any part of the body. If someone is constantly fidgeting with his hands, frequently crosses his legs, taps his feet, drums his fingers or gets up and walks around the room, it is a sure sign of nerves or agitation. Learn to recognise such signs and deal with them sympathetically. When you are talking yourself, try to remain still. Movement is distracting and other people's mannerisms can be extremely annoying - head-scratching, beard-stroking or similar movements can be very disturbing when you are trying to listen to a complicated argument.

•

Eye Contact It is generally accepted that a person who looks straight into your eyes is honest and trustworthy. This may or may not be the case but, in any event, it is a good idea to look directly at the person you are talking to. Doing this suggests an open, honest nature, although it is wise to avoid an unwavering stare, as many people find this disturbing. At important stages of the conversation - at the beginning, certainly, and at the end - it is a good idea to look at your listener directly, in the eyes if possible. When you are talking to a group of people, however, make sure that your eyes travel across the room and move your head if necessary, so that you can look at each person in turn. Arrange the room so that you can maintain eye contact with everyone who is there. Without this, people quickly become bored, as they feel isolated and left out.

Advantages of Verbal Communication If you have to decide whether to communicate orally or in writing, you need to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of each medium. Used properly and in the right place, oral communication has many powerful advantages.

Comprehensibility Although communicating in writing allows you to state ideas very clearly, it doesn't provide you with any immediate response from the person reading it. The reader can write to you in reply or to clarify certain points, but this takes time. However much you may try to make your

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meaning clear, it is always possible that you may leave out a vital element of the message, take something for granted, or simply use language that means something entirely different to your reader. This is where oral communication can be so much better. If something is said which you do not fully or immediately understand, you can ask questions to make the meaning clearer. Also, you will be 'scanning' the listener - watching for reactions which show that he's puzzled or even hostile. If you see this kind of reaction, you will obviously try to clarify what you're saying. In this process of scanning, the non-verbal elements of communication are very important. These are the aspects of communication which take place without the use of words - the gestures, movements and other elements popularly called 'body language' that we have been considering.

Immediacy Oral communication also has the advantage that all the people involved can express their views. This means that they can avoid the delay inevitable in written communication, and views can be exchanged immediately. In a business context, where decisions may have to be reached quickly, this is an obvious advantage. It also means that those who take the decisions will be able to take into account all the points which seem relevant and discuss them, developing some ideas at the expense of others which are less important, and genuinely evaluating the various points of view. This is particularly important in meetings of committees and larger bodies. Once everyone has aired their views and all the various arguments have been put forward and considered, the actual decision-making can take place. Again you can see how useful this can be, particularly if time is important. You should also bear in mind that a final decision may rest on information still to be obtained, but at least you can decide to obtain it!

Courtesy Meeting someone in person is a way of showing respect, especially if you have had to go out of your way to arrange the meeting. A personal meeting shows that you are genuinely interested in the person, or in the matter involved, and this may make all the difference in dealing with a matter of concern. In addition, personal meetings allow those involved to develop a relationship of trust and understanding, which is most important when working together. They give those in positions of authority within a company a chance to show that they are concerned about the ideas and feelings of their staff, if they are willing to meet and discuss issues with them in person, either individually or in groups. Clearly, the times and places where you can use oral communications are large in number and range. Some of the more suitable occasions are as follows: 

When it is essential to meet the person involved to evaluate his suitability for a particular task. This is especially relevant to selection interviews, to ensure that you appoint the right person for a job vacancy, but it is also important in other areas, such as deciding which member of a group should be delegated to carry out a particular task.



When it is important to pool the knowledge of several people to arrive at key decisions. This is true of various aspects of a company's activities, from the board of directors downwards.

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

Where you are discussing a delicate or personal matter with an individual employee or contractor. You may wish to raise matters carefully, while being aware of the person's reaction, in a manner impossible in writing.



Where you need to persuade listeners of a particular course of action, particularly if it involves change. People need reassurance in these circumstances and find discussion comforting, even if they can't alter the outcome.



For a process of negotiation, where a compromise has to be reached between alternative or rival courses of action. This is particularly important in cases where possible issues of conflict are involved, such as grievance or disciplinary procedures, or discussion of conditions of work, rates of pay and other similar matters.



For informing members of a company or department about new developments in company policy, where a full staff meeting will provide the opportunity to pass on information and allow employees to ask questions and discuss the matter.



During training sessions, which may involve formal presentations as well as smaller discussion groups to exchange ideas and information.

Disadvantages of Verbal Communication Not everything about spoken communication is good. Here are some of its disadvantages: •

No Written Record Oral communication does not provide a written record of what has been said or decided.

•

Time-Consuming Personal meetings are time-consuming and can involve travelling to different sites. This can be tiring and can defeat your aims in two ways - by wasting time and by reducing your positive approach to the personal exchange at the end of the journey.

•

Personal Differences There are some circumstances in which, however hard you try to establish a good working relationship, it will be impossible to do so because of a clash of personalities.

A major disadvantage of oral communication is that one or other party may not be listening.

Advantages of Written Communication When distance or an interval of time is involved, one should resort to the written message. A further consideration is that some people are not quick to understand spoken messages or will easily forget them as other matters crowd in. Others simply will not act without some form of written confirmation. Usually, policy statements, instructions, technical information or general requirements are best conveyed by means of a written document, which can be circulated or displayed on noticeboards as necessary.

Memoranda Memoranda have certain important functions: 

In busy companies, they keep the flow of information going between all levels of management or supervision.



They are a quick and convenient method of communicating policy, decisions and instructions.

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

They can be used as a reminder and personal record of what exactly people are expected to know or do.



They provide a permanent record and usually ensure that any necessary action is promptly taken, because they are very much to the point and convey a sense of urgency.

Disadvantages of Written Communication We have already mentioned some of the disadvantages of written communication in the course of our discussion, but will group them together here for ease of reference. The main disadvantages are that: 

Vital information may be omitted from the communication.



There is no immediate response from the receiver of the message.



The communication may take certain knowledge on the part of the receiver for granted.



The sender cannot see the receiver's reaction.



The process of communication takes time and may delay decisions.



Discussion is difficult and protracted.



Written communication may be too formal.



The message may be difficult to understand.



The language used may mean something different to the reader.



Reading something in print can give it an appearance of truth, when this may not be the case.

Posture This is sometimes considered as a sign of a person's feelings or response, but be careful – it may not apply in all situations. If you sit forward and look at the speaker, you may be showing involvement and active interest. By contrast, if you sit back looking at the floor, you could be indicating boredom or anger. A person sitting with hunched shoulders and folded arms may be being defensive and may be resistant to any new ideas; someone leaning back comfortably, with their hands on the back of their head, could be thinking in a free, relaxed way, which shows complete trust in the other people present (although this is obviously not the ideal body language for formal situations, such as meetings). All these can be valuable signs. Try to learn to see people's postures as a possible guide to their attitude in health and safety encounters.

Expression This is another obvious sign of feelings - and one which is very hard to control. When listening, try to adopt a neutral expression, smiling in a friendly way to encourage the speaker. When speaking, look for responses shown by expressions: 

Smiles reveal pleasure.



Withdrawn, vacant expressions suggest boredom.



Frowns may suggest anger, but more often concentration or deep thought.

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Channels of Communication A channel of communication is the physical means by which a message is communicated. Most behavioural scientists today agree that different people perceive the world in different ways and understanding this can help us a great deal in communicating with them. The three main ways in which we communicate are visual, audio and kinaesthetic. It is generally agreed that no-one uses any of the styles exclusively and most people will tend to have an overlap between them. However, we all tend to have a preferred style that will go a long way towards explaining how we perceive the world. •

Visual Visual people relate best to visual or written information. They will like visual presentations and will probably be unhappy with a purely verbal discussion of an issue. These people will tend to take notes in a discussion, even if you provide them with written information. Visual communicators tend to use 'visual' words in their language a great deal. For example, they might well say, "As far as I can see, this is a good idea". It is generally believed that visual communicators make up around 65% of the population.

•

Audio Audio people relate best to the spoken word. They will tend to listen very intently to what you are saying. If they do take notes, they will do it afterwards. Very often, they will rely on whatever information you give them. Audio communicators are often very strong communicators and may well fill jobs where public speaking is important, such as in law or politics. Such communicators may well use 'hearing'-type language in their speech. For example, they might say, "That sounds a good idea to me". It is generally believed that auditory communicators make up around 30% of the population.

•

Kinaesthetic Kinaesthetic people tend to communicate through touch, movement and space, and often appear to be rather 'slow on the uptake'. They learn best through practical experience. For them, trying something is by far the best way for them to understand. Kinaesthetic communicators will tend to use words such as "That feels good to me". It is believed that kinaesthetic communicators make up around 5% of the population.

The main message is that different people have different approaches to communication. In addition, these styles tend to overlap. Your employees may have more than one style. The best solution is to assume that there are all three types of person in your audience and tailor presentations to have a visual, audio and kinaesthetic element. For example, you might have a visual presentation (with overheads or PowerPoint perhaps), a verbal discussion and samples of PPE passed round. If you are concerned with a piece of equipment, a practical demonstration may well be a good solution.

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Barriers to Good Communication The principal barriers to communicating on health and safety issues arise from both the communicator and the receiver. On the part of the communicator: 

Trying to communicate at the 'wrong level'.



Making assumptions as to people's understanding.



Lack of authority.



Poor verbal skills.



Poor written skills.



Lack of enthusiasm.



Personality clashes.



Inappropriate messages.

On the part of the receiver: 

Health problems - e.g. poor eyesight, poor hearing.



Language difficulties.



Reading difficulties.



Learning difficulties.



Lack of interest, and distraction/boredom.



Misunderstanding.



Failing to ask when not sure.



Poor listening skills.

Communication will also fail if there is a difference in attitude or experience between the communicating parties, or if there are outside influences during the communication process such as: 

Physical noise (heavy traffic, constantly ringing telephones, people talking to you while you are reading a memo).



A poor telephone connection.



Illegible handwriting.

These features of the setting in which the communication takes place, which interfere with the accurate transfer of information, are collectively known as 'noise'.

Jargon There are two types of jargon: 

There is the expression which members of a particular group use simply because it has become the custom. Such phrases include foreign expressions such as 'inter alia' instead of 'among other things', or fashionable words such as 'parameters' instead of 'limits' and 'discrete components' instead of 'separate parts'. Expressions of this kind serve only to obscure rather than reveal your ideas, and you should avoid them.

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

The second kind of jargon is more positive. In any specialised occupation or area of interest, new concepts will emerge which people refer to by specific groups of words. If a theatre critic talks of an 'alienation effect' or a psychiatrist refers to 'sensory deprivation', other members of the same group will know what he is describing. Those outside the group may have difficulty in understanding, and they will have to learn the special meaning to participate in the group. Language of this kind is acceptable where it is the clearest way of expressing the idea or phenomenon it names and where it is used to other members of a group who will understand it without question. However, where you are communicating as a specialist with a layman - for example, when explaining a technical issue to an employee - you should always be careful to explain such terms when you first use them, or translate the terms into ordinary language.

Level of Language Try to match your vocabulary to the receiver of the communication. Avoid complex and technical terms which may not be understood, but at the same time avoid giving the impression of talking down to your audience. If you are communicating with a fellow professional who will understand technical terms, then by all means use them as a way of saving time. Otherwise, use a simple, clear style to explain points briefly and directly.

Perception Perception is an important part of communication. People will hear or read what they want to and not what is intended, a common failing in examinations! We interpret what is within our experience and this may not be what is required. In matters concerning health and safety, we are often talking to managers and staff who have no knowledge of safety and do not think in the same way as a safety advisor. So we have to explain why a situation is a hazard, what the consequences are to an injured person and to the company. The fact that there has never been an accident is no reason to think that it can never happen.

Selective Reception Our senses are continuously receiving information and the brain is processing it. However, we cannot keep our mind continuously on all that is coming to us: we use a filter mechanism. This is similar to dividing a product by passing it through a selection of sieves. Each sieve catches a particular size fraction. Information passed to higher levels of management is also filtered. From all the information available, only the vital elements are passed on. In much the same way, we tend to be continuously screening out those items that are not of immediate interest. In a noisy workshop, an operator will tend not to hear the background noise but only those factors that are of interest to his particular job. Although we see all in front of us, we can concentrate on one particular subject and filter out other matters. We don't hear a constantly ticking clock, but would be immediately aware if it stopped. If you are able to 'speed read' then you would not see each individual word, but would quickly scan a page, only seeing those word forms which are conveying vital information. For instance, if you were looking for some information about 'filtering', you could rapidly scan an article or chapter in a book, and be stopped by the occurrence of the word 'filter', without actually reading the whole article. Filtering and selectivity are vital human activities, since we often tend to do many activities in 'auto-pilot mode'. From a safety point of view, however, the process of filtering and selectivity presents a danger. While concentrating on a particular topic, to the selective exclusion of others, we can easily miss a vital signal which should have warned us of danger. We do,

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nevertheless, tend to notice changed situations. Danger signals and warnings are more likely to be heeded if they involve loud bells or klaxons and flashing rather than fixed lights.

Emotions An anxious or excited person cannot usually communicate effectively - this affects all four of the communication skills (writing, reading, speaking, listening). Shut out your own emotional response to a message if that seems to be interfering with understanding. You need to be open-minded and guard against prejudice and stereotyping.

Sensory Defects We discussed this topic in Study Unit 3A2 as part of the perception of risk. It would be helpful for you to revise it at this point.

Overcoming Communication Problems Barriers can be overcome by: 

Avoiding negativity, being positive and enthusiastic.



Making communication 'two-way'.



Using attention-getting techniques.



Ensuring correct exposure.



Ensuring comprehension through feedback, testing, etc.



Making messages clear and understandable.



Making messages credible and achievable.



Making messages appropriate to the workplace.

Some Rules for Overcoming Barriers Many of the most important barriers to communicating may be overcome by following a few simple rules: •

Develop Personal Communication Skills This is one of the simplest ways in which communication may be improved. Communication skills cover the ability to write in clear language so that a meaning is expressed directly and without ambiguity. They also include the ability to talk to a wide range of people in formal and informal situations to achieve a range of purposes. More important, perhaps, are the skills that are often neglected. These include the range of reading skills required for the correct understanding of information, and we must also add the ability to listen and understand, so that the speaker knows you are sympathetic and aware of what he is saying. A simple awareness of these abilities - particularly the last - as skills which can be developed, will help you a great deal in improving your communication at a business and also a personal level.

•

Know When to Communicate Judging the right moment to make a communication is often important in business. For instance:

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−

Some people deliberately write letters so that they will arrive on a Friday, when people are supposed to be feeling happy with the prospect of the coming weekend.

−

In a business context, making telephone calls first thing in the morning when the recipient is still dealing with the mail would probably be a mistake.

−

Tackling your employer in the corridor when you want to ask him a complicated favour is probably not a good idea.

Choosing the moment for a communication, both in terms of its psychological rightness for the person involved and in relation to patterns of trade or work, is thus a very important way of avoiding barriers of attitude in the recipient or distractions in the external circumstances. •

Know With Whom to Communicate It is no use communicating at length with someone unless you know that this person is the one responsible for making the decisions involved. If you contact the wrong person, you will only waste time for both of you. Worse still, you may give an impression of inefficiency, which will bode ill for future communication, or annoy the person involved. Always make sure, then, that you are communicating with the right person. This also applies to 'crossed lines' - the kind of situation where both parties think that the other is someone else. Such a mistake can cause all kinds of misunderstandings, so do make sure that you contact the right person.

•

Define Your Information Working people rarely have time to waste on non-essential matters. As a result, it pays to make sure you know exactly how much you need to convey in your communication. Knowing what not to say is almost as important as knowing what to say - so cut out all material which is not central to your intentions. This is really another way of saying that you must define your purpose carefully and exactly.

•

Define the Intended Response Think carefully about what you want the recipient to do in response to your communication: −

Are you trying to change an attitude, or establish what happened?

−

Are you simply trying to find out what he thinks, or asking for advice?

Defining exactly the response you are seeking can help a great deal, especially if you put yourself in the place of the recipient and ask whether you would respond in the way you want, if you were faced with the memo you plan to send. This is always a good exercise to perform before sending off a written communication, or before adopting a particular approach in oral communication. •

Choose the Medium Carefully For some situations a written communication is essential; for others it would be too formal and restricting. Always think carefully about the best kind of communication medium for a particular situation and recipient. −

It may be simplest to make a phone call, but would a personal visit be more effective?

−

A memo has the advantage of being permanent and on record, but is there any guarantee that the recipient will act on it?

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These are the kind of questions you need to ask yourself when thinking about beginning the communication process. •

Match Your Expression to the Recipient We left this until last because it is the single most important rule for effective communication. Distortion of the message may occur at the stage of planning it, when insufficient care is taken over the vocabulary and background of the recipient by the sender. Similarly, consideration must be given to your relationship to the recipient - are you of inferior or superior position? If the latter, will it appear haughty and aloof if you issue orders rather than making requests? Finally, the purpose of your message must be taken into account - how do you want the recipient to react? The intended response is important in the kind of expression you use, so that the reader is not put off by the way the request is worded. We have stressed the importance of knowing what response is wanted; you also have to consider the best way of achieving that response by using language appropriate to the purpose, as well as to the recipient's own background and attitudes. You may need to consider whether the language you are using is the recipient's first language and what background or previous experience he has. Will jargon be understood? Does the recipient want to hear what you have to say or is he being forced to listen? Remember, too, that there are still adults unable to read.

Following these rules will not guarantee perfect communication on every occasion. There will be times when external noise and internal distortion will still erect barriers, and times when straightforward disagreement or even failure are the outcome of attempts to communicate. However, if you strive to follow these rules on all occasions, you will find that communicating becomes far more effective as you learn to consider the other person's point of view and assess the real purpose of what you are trying to achieve. Remember, too, that the purpose behind being aware of the theoretical elements of communication is that you can try to avoid the problems and the pitfalls of communication in practice.

Successful Communication If what you have to say is going to be successful, i.e. achieve the desired results, it is necessary to plan ahead and think about the following questions: 





Who will I be communicating with? −

Who is he?

−

What is he like as a person?

−

How much or how little does he need to help to understand and accept?

What do you want to say? −

Are you clear about it in your own mind?

−

Is there any further detail you need to add or check on?

How do you put it across? −

Is your approach right?

−

Are you using the right words in the circumstances?

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

How do you ensure that your message has got home? −

What feedback do you want?

−

What questions can you ask him?

A willingness to answer these questions before you approach other people will avoid the pitfalls outlined earlier. Moreover, you might reconsider the use of oral communication to pass on an instruction when the message might have to pass to someone else on another shift. Some further guiding principles in improving communication are: 

Make the communication as clear as possible. Decide on the real objective of the message and how it can be most effectively expressed. Use the language and style most in accord with the background and knowledge of the listener (or reader).



Choose the most appropriate medium for the message. This will be governed by the cost weighed against the desired effect. The alternatives may be categorised as follows: −

Face-to-face - suitable for training sessions, interviews, meetings and conversations.

−

Written - suitable for individual letters or memoranda, worker pamphlets and publications, handbooks, manuals, general circulars, noticeboard bulletins, newsletters, suggestion schemes, press releases and advertisements.

−

Visual - such as posters, photographs, diagrams, films, videos, DVDs, charts, pictures and television.

−

Audio - such as the telephone, loudspeakers, and radio.



Aim at consistency. Messages should be consistent with one another, as the communication process is continuous and one communication helps to 'condition' those that follow it.



Be selective in content. If a message is overloaded with detail, its objective may not be clear.



Plan the timing. Except in emergencies, a message should follow normal organisational lines of communication. Persons of similar status should receive messages as nearly as possible at the same time.

REMEMBER: The face-to-face communication does give the communicator the best chance of making sure that the listener knows what he has to do and that he is able to do it. Provided that you take advantage of this, use the feedback that comes through his expression, stance, gestures and answers to the questions, you will improve your ability to communicate orally.

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Title

Page

Target Setting and Continuous Improvement

RELATIONSHIP OF INDIVIDUAL TARGETS TO COMPANY, CORPORATE AND NATIONAL TARGETS ................... 3 WORKING TO TIME-BOUND KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS .............................................................................................. 3 INDIVIDUAL COMPETENCE......................................................................................................................................... 3 USING INFORMATION FROM MEASUREMENT AGAINST PERFORMANCE STANDARDS ...................................... 5 ESTABLISH PRIORITIES ............................................................................................................................................ 5 ENHANCE PROCEDURES ............................................................................................................................................ 7 REVIEW PERFORMANCE ............................................................................................................................................ 9 PRINCIPLES OF CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT ................................................................................................ 11 APPLICATION TO HEALTH AND SAFETY........................................................................................................................ 11 APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT ....................................................................... 13 MONITOR .......................................................................................................................................................... 13 REVIEW ............................................................................................................................................................ 15 SET TARGETS ..................................................................................................................................................... 16 BENCHMARKING ................................................................................................................................................... 16 TECHNIQUES TO INTERPRET AND DISSEMINATE FINDINGS ........................................................................... 18 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................................... 18 GRAPHS ............................................................................................................................................................ 18 GAP ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................................... 22 ALIGNING CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT TO THE CORPORATE VISION .......................................................... 23 AVOIDING COMPLACENCY................................................................................................................................ 25

BSC International Diploma - Element 3A | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture

BSC International Diploma | Unit 3 Element 3A | Developing a Positive Health and Safety Culture Study Unit 3A4 | Target Setting and Continuous Improvement Learning Outcomes When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:

➢

Explain the relationship between individual targets and company and national targets.

➢

Use information from measurement against performance targets in health and safety policy development.

➢

Use appropriate techniques to interpret and disseminate findings.

➢

Apply the principles of continuous improvement.

Unit 9:

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Relationship of Individual Targets to Company, Corporate and National Targets Working to Time-Bound Key Performance Indicators Performance indicators are an increasingly used management tool. One simple definition is: “A numerical measure of the degree to which the objective is being achieved”. Objectives should be SMART, i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-orientated and Time-bound. The measurement of occupational health and safety (OHS) performance has traditionally concentrated on the measurement of outcomes such as accidents and injuries. However, there are many limitations with this approach, the principal one being its retrospective nature. Consequently, organisations have been driven to consider alternative ways of measuring performance. Enterprises conduct many health and safety activities that could be used as measures of health and safety performance and these measures need to focus on how successfully an organisation is performing regarding OHS initiatives. The benefits gained from OHS performance measurement include: 

A valid indication of overall performance.



The ability to identify and rectify poor performance.



The ability to evaluate the effectiveness of OHS initiatives.



The opportunity to benchmark and identify best practice.

Performance measures can be broadly categorised as reactive (outcome-focused) or proactive (positive or process-focused). Outcome indicators such as accident and incident rates and ill-health prevalence concentrate on the measurement of loss. They are easy to collect, easily understood, have an obvious link with safety performance and can be used to identify trends. However, they are low-probability, subject to random variation and measure failure. Positive performance indicators measuring compliance with OHS systems, practices and standards focus on how successfully the organisation is performing by monitoring the processes that should produce a good OHS outcome. They measure the effectiveness of management, provide immediate feedback and consequently allow immediate action if necessary. However, they may be difficult to collect, time-consuming and less direct in preventing injury or disease.

Individual Competence One of the factors relevant to the relationship between individual targets and those of the company, including corporate and national targets, is the level of competence of the individual. Competence of employees can be achieved through effective recruitment and placement procedures, i.e. selecting the right person who is ‘on board’ with the company from day 1, and the provision of information, instruction and training to ensure that staff fully appreciate the company’s targets, goals and objectives. A goal can be defined as "an object of effort or ambition". In order to be successful and progress, both an organisation and individuals have to have goals. For the organisation, the goal may be an aspiration to be the "best in their field" or to be the "largest" or to be renowned for "outstanding quality". Clearly for the organisation to achieve these goals then the employees need to have their own goals and objectives to work towards the organisational

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goal. However, the individual may have other goals which may or may not impact on the organisation. For example, an individual may aspire to be promoted, which would probably mean that the individual will work very hard to achieve their goals/objectives within the organisation, as this should help them to achieve their own personal goal of promotion. Another individual, however, may aspire to work fewer hours or have more time with their family. This may impact on their willingness to put in extra hours, which may be required for the organisation to achieve their goal. In setting and achieving health and safety targets, the organisation should consider the needs of the individual. Where health and safety tasks are delegated, at all levels from senior managers to shop-floor workers, the individual(s) given the responsibility for those tasks should be clearly identified and stated. This gives ownership to the individual concerned and is an important factor in getting the individual to 'buy in' to the organisation's goals. Many organisations give responsibility without the relevant authority to carry out the tasks. This can be a mistake as, without authority, the individual can feel frustrated at being unable to carry out the tasks. This, in turn, leads to a feeling of futility and results in tasks being done poorly or not at all. Where authority is given to enable the individual to carry out tasks, this can result in an increase in self-esteem and increases the possibility of the tasks being performed well. It is important that the limits of responsibility and authority are clearly defined so that individuals know the extent of what they can and cannot do. With responsibility comes accountability, and this must be made clear to all individuals given health and safety responsibilities. One important issue when giving responsibility is to ensure that the individual is capable of accepting it.

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Using Information from Measurement against Performance Standards In order to determine how well an organisation is performing in any function, it is necessary to have something to measure. It is important to ensure that everybody knows what is expected of them in controlling risks within the organisation. Performance standards should ensure that the intentions of the safety policy are transferred into action. Performance standards should: 

Set out clearly what people need to do to contribute to an environment which is free of injuries, ill-health and loss.



Help identify the competences which individuals need to fulfil their responsibilities.



Form the basis for measuring individual, group and organisational performance.

Responsibilities should be linked to specific outputs. Good performance standards should identify: 

Who is responsible - either by name or position. Those given responsibilities should be competent to carry out the tasks.



What they are responsible for - what needs to be done and how it is to be done. Using examples such as: −

Preparing plans to implement the health and safety policy.

−

Carrying out risk assessments.

−

Periodic monitoring of health and safety performance.

−

Providing training.

−

Checking contractors’ health and safety performance before awarding contracts.

−

Providing first-aid after an accident.



When the work should be done - is it a regular occurrence such as a monthly inspection, or irregular only when certain tasks are carried out?



What is the expected result - do any legal requirements have to be satisfied, such as attaining a certain level of noise? The result may, alternatively, be the achievement of a specified organisational output, such as training.

In order to ensure that the standards are being achieved, it is important to monitor them. This will allow shortcomings to be identified and action taken to correct them. Monitoring should be seen as an integral part of the management system and not as ‘checking up’ on individuals.

Establish Priorities The key factors to take into account when setting priorities are the type of organisation and the relevant risk data. The risk assessment will be a vital part of the exercise. Whatever the targets and objectives that have been set, prioritisation should be based on risk.

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One method for setting priorities is to base these on numerical risk estimation. The effect of the hazard or severity of harm can be rated as: Major

(Death or major injury or illness causing long-term disability)

3

Serious

(Injury or illness causing short-term disability)

2

Slight

(All other injuries or illness)

1

The likelihood of harm may be rated: High

(Where it is certain or near certain that harm will occur)

3

Medium

(Where harm will often occur)

2

Low

(Where harm will seldom occur)

1

Risk, and our prioritisation based on risk, can then be estimated from: Severity of harm x Likelihood of occurrence

MAJOR SERIOUS SLIGHT

HIGH 9 6 3

MEDIUM 6 4 2

LOW 3 2 1

We can then set individual priorities based on the risk rating above, i.e. 9, top priority, and 6, 4, 3, 2, 1 in decreasing order. Some organisations combine priority with timescale (although they are different parameters) and specify arbitrary completion times based on risk rating: 9

Immediate action.

6

Action within one week.

4

Action within two weeks.

3

Action within one month.

2

Action within six months.

Consequently, if the probability is high and the severity is also high, then it will be vital to do a great deal and spend a lot of finance to achieve a valid solution. If the probability or the severity is low, then it will not warrant too great an expenditure. We can also use risk transfer or risk retention options, using insurance in some cases as a risk management solution (see Study Unit 3B4). Other important factors to take into account when setting priorities include: •

Public Expectancy You will probably have listened to radio and television reporters interviewing safety practitioners, or members of management, following some disaster. They often ask the

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thoughtless question: "Can you guarantee that nothing like this will ever happen again?” Consider that you might at some time be the one who is asked the question. Human beings make mistakes, and no machine is infallible. Earthquakes occur without warning, and we can do little to control the effects of freak weather. A major problem is that the general public is never very realistic in assessing relative risk. Car accidents cause more deaths than public transport, but seldom hit the national headlines. Atomic energy is probably one of the safest power sources. Most deaths are from cancer, heart disease and stroke, and very few are from industrial causes. Most people would make a poor job of rating industries by their accident potential. •

Legal Requirements 'Learning by accident' is an apt way of describing how safety legislation has been developed over the years. Industrial accidents and disasters are the basic reason for much of legislation. Mines and factories were the cause of fatalities, so legislation was enacted to control them. Now legislation is more general. This sets standards that have to be adhered to; these are the basis of minimum standards. In addition, there may be contractual obligations that have to be met and consequently will determine standards of control. Also, the need for employer's liability insurance may require insurance companies to dictate the standards of health and safety in the workplace that need to be achieved before insurance cover is provided.

We can also consider prioritisation within the general principles of prevention. These set out a range of risk control options as follows: 

Avoiding risks.



Evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided.



Combating the risks at source.



Adapting the work to the individual, especially as regards the design of workplaces, the choice of work equipment and the choice of working and production methods, with a view, in particular, to alleviating monotonous work and work at a predetermined work-rate and to reducing their effect on health.



Adapting to technical progress.



Replacing the dangerous with the non-dangerous or the less dangerous.



Developing a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organisation of work, working conditions, social relationships and the influence of factors relating to the working environment.



Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures.



Giving appropriate instructions to employees.

Enhance Procedures The information gained from monitoring must be used to improve health and safety performance and this means, in practice, developing, maintaining and improving procedures to provide safe systems of work. Monitoring means periodically checking that employees continue to find the system workable, the procedures laid down in the system of work are being carried out and are effective and any changes in circumstances which require alterations to the system of work are taken into account. You will remember the key elements required to develop and maintain safe systems of work:

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•

Assessing the Task Assess all aspects of the tasks being carried out and the risks that they present. Hazards to health as well as to safety should be considered.

•

Defining Safe Methods Safe systems of work may be defined orally, by a simple written procedure or, in exceptional cases, by a formal permit-to-work scheme. It is important to involve the people who will be doing the work. Their practical knowledge of problems can help avoid unusual risks and prevent false assumptions being made at this stage. In those special cases where a permit-to-work system is necessary, there should be a properly documented procedure. It is important that everyone understands which jobs require a formal permit-to-work.

•

Implementing the System Safe systems of work must be communicated properly, understood by employees and applied correctly. They should be aware of the commitment to reduce accidents by using safe systems of work. Supervisors must know they should implement and maintain those systems of work. Employees, supervisors and managers must all be trained in the necessary skills and be fully aware of potential risks and the precautions they must adopt.

Developing a Practical System In developing a practical safe working system, it is necessary to ensure that adequate provision is made for the following: 

Safe design of plant and equipment.



Safe installation of plant and machinery.



Safe maintenance of plant, equipment and premises.



Safe use of plant, equipment and tools through proper training and supervision.



Documented, planned maintenance procedures.



Safe working environment (ventilation, heat and light).



Adequate and competent supervision.



Trained and competent employees.



Proper enforcement of the safety policy and associated rules.



Adequate personal protection for vulnerable employees.



Documented procedures for the issue of protective clothing.



Dissemination of health and safety information to all the employees.

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

Regular reviews (not less than once a year) of all job safety instructions and methods of work to ensure that: −

There is continued compliance with legislation.

−

Plant modifications are taken into account.

−

Substituted materials are taken into account.

−

New work methods are incorporated.

−

Systems still work safely in practice.

−

Advances in new technology are exploited.

−

Safety precautions are adjusted to take into account accident experience.

Consequently, we can see how monitoring activities serve to confirm to what extent safe systems of work are being maintained and, more importantly, where improvements need to be made. Prioritisation of these improvements has already been discussed in the previous subsection.

Review Performance Previous Performance It is always useful to compare present performance data with that obtained over the last few months or last year. The comparison of performance over time shows the overall trend and whether performance appears to be improving or deteriorating. It is important, however, to look at a reasonably long period of time, as there may be seasonal fluctuations, for example, which could give a false view of performance. One way of overcoming fluctuations due to various factors is to use the moving average, which shows the trend over time very well. Other factors could affect the data, e.g. a reduction in staff numbers may lead to a reduction in absolute accident numbers, which could be misread as an improvement in safety performance. To avoid issues like this it is possible to use accident rates which take into account the numbers of employees working and/or the number of man-hours worked, etc. The following formulae are commonly used methods of calculating injury incidence rates and injury frequency rates. •

Injury Incidence Rate This can be calculated from:

Number of reportable injuries in financial year X 100,000 Average number employed during year It is a measure of the number of injuries per 100,000 employees. •

Injury Frequency Rate This is calculated from:

Number of injuries in the period Total hours worked during the period

X 1,000,000

The injury frequency rate is calculated on the basis of the number of hours worked rather than the number of workers employed. Different organisations will calculate accident statistics in a wide variety of ways and their chosen method will ultimately depend upon the number of employees they have (see below).

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Performance of Similar Organisations/Industry Sectors Sometimes it is beneficial to compare company data against other organisations or industry sectors that carry out similar functions or that deal with similar hazards. In this way, you can compare the performance of your company with others (benchmark) to determine the differences and similarities. It is always worth checking, of course, that the measurable parameters used are the same (it is easy to manipulate data by using different units of measurement or criteria). Once you have established that the data is comparable, it is worth trying to identify whether the trends are similar. Where there are marked differences, it is worth considering the reasons for these, e.g. geographical locations, different customer base, different shift patterns, etc. Some simple analysis may help you to understand your own data and may give you some ideas as to how improvements can be made. It can be reassuring to compare data with other companies or, on the other hand, it can be alarming. Whatever the outcome, it is an important exercise.

National Performance Data Some performance data is produced by local government and health and safety bodies and can be useful in gauging where you are as a company, i.e. are you maintaining standards in line with national figures or are there improvements to be made? It is easy to become complacent with respect to health and safety performance, particularly if your company appears to be continually improving. By comparing your company results to national figures, you may become motivated to further that improvement.

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Principles of Continuous Improvement Current thought on health and safety management advocates a dynamic system that looks for continuous improvement. This is in stark contrast to the traditional static and reactive view, which sees only a requirement to address immediate causes of accidents. Effective health and safety policies set a clear direction for the organisation to follow. They contribute to all aspects of business performance as part of a demonstrable commitment to continuous improvement. This recognises that continuous improvement is a fundamental business objective. The term ‘Kaizen’ (a Japanese word meaning gradual and orderly, continuous improvement) is widely employed in industry. Adopting Kaizen involves the creation of a culture of sustained continuous improvement, focusing on eliminating waste in all systems and processes of an organisation. There are two essential elements that make up Kaizen: 

improvement/change for the better; and



on-going/continuity.

A system/culture that lacks either of these is not true Kaizen. Maintaining existing ways of working (good though they may be) will lack the essential 'improvement' element, though it ensures continuity. Sudden 'breakthrough' improvement, not backed up by effective on-going improvement, will lack the element of continuity. Kaizen should contain both elements. Kaizen achieves its effects by working through people. All are expected to be involved. Managers, for example, are expected to spend about half their time on improving what they, and those for whom they are responsible, do.

Application to Health and Safety Measurement is a key step in any management process and forms the basis of continual improvement. If measurement is not carried out correctly, the effectiveness of the health and safety management system is undermined and there is no reliable information to inform managers how well the health and safety risks are controlled. The primary purpose of measuring health and safety performance is to provide information on the progress and current status of the strategies, processes and activities used by an organisation to control risks to health and safety. Measurement information sustains the operation and development of the health and safety management system, and so the control of risk, by: 

Providing information on how the system operates in practice.



Identifying areas where remedial action is required.



Providing a basis for continual improvement.



Providing feedback and motivation.

Effective performance measurement provides information on both the level of performance and why the performance level is as it is.

“Only when you know why you have hit the target can you truly say you have learnt archery” - Chinese proverb. If the information derived from measurement cannot be used as a means to understand the basis of performance then it is of little use.

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Measurement is an accepted part of the 'plan-do-check-act' management process. Measuring performance is as much part of a health and safety management system as financial, production or service delivery management.

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Applying the Principles of Continuous Improvement Monitor Organisations need to guard against the danger of having a performance measurement process where there is measurement for measurement's sake. Just because something is amenable to measurement does not mean that it has to be measured. For example, there is an extensive range of biological monitoring techniques available, including analysis of blood samples. One might consider using these to measure the effectiveness of chemical exposure controls, in circumstances where exposure could result in increased levels of the substance in the bloodstream. However, before employing such techniques, one must carefully consider issues such as: 

Interpretation of results: −

What is the significance of a lead in blood concentration of 60 µg/100 ml, for example?

−

Is it safe or dangerous?

−

How will staff respond to the information?



The value of the information as a performance indicator (airborne contaminant measurements might be more effective).



The effort involved (blood sampling is time-consuming and disruptive).



Cost (the medical involvement is costly).

Like any activity, measurement has associated costs and so needs to be undertaken efficiently and to best effect. There is general agreement on the key steps in developing a performance measurement system. It is important that all those who are involved in the processes or activities have the opportunity to contribute to the following steps:

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1. Identify the key processes. In the case of health and safety, these will be the management arrangements, risk control systems and workplace precautions. 2. Analyse the key management arrangements and risk control systems to produce a process map or flowchart. If the management arrangements and risk control systems have been designed correctly, it should be relatively easy to produce a flowchart. It is essential to understand how the process actually operates on the ground, so it is important to involve those responsible for implementing the process in this activity. 3. Identify the critical measures for each management arrangement and risk control system. This can be done by considering: −

What outcome do we want?

−

When do we want it?

−

How would we know if we achieved the desired outcome?

−

What are people expected to do?

−

What do they need to be able to do it?

−

When should they do it?

−

What result should it produce?

−

How would we know that people are doing what they should be doing?

Again, it is important to include the people involved in implementing the arrangements and systems in deciding what the critical measures might be. The measures which are derived should be: −

accepted by and meaningful to those involved in the activities being measured and those who need to use the measures;

−

simple/understandable/repeatable/objective;

−

capable of showing trends;

−

unambiguously defined;

−

cost-effective in terms of data collection;

−

timely;

−

sensitive; and should

−

drive appropriate behaviour.

This last point is particularly important, because the choice of measures can sometimes promote behaviours which are in conflict with the desired outcomes. For example, rewarding low accident rates (in the absence of other measures of performance) can lead to under-reporting; or merely counting the number of safety meetings held by a supervisor can lead to the target for the number of safety meetings being achieved but the quality being very poor.

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4. Establish baselines for each measure. Once the individual measures have been established then baseline data needs to be established. 5. Establish goals or targets for each measure. Again, this should be done by involving the people who are expected to operate the particular activity, rather than imposing goals or targets on them arbitrarily. 6. Assign responsibility for collecting and analysing the data. It is important to assign responsibility for collecting and analysing the data, and to hold people accountable for this activity. 7. Compare actual performance against target. The emphasis should be on achievements rather than failures, but it is important to analyse the reasons for substandard performance, if improvements are to be made. 8. Decide on corrective action. The measurement data should provide information to enable decisions to be made about what corrective action is required and where and when it is necessary.

Review The critical measures derived need to be reviewed regularly to ensure that they remain appropriate, useful and cost-effective. There should not be frequent changes of measures, because this can lead to confusion. In seeking to improve the organisation's approach to measuring health and safety performance, a useful starting point is to review what measuring activity is currently taking place and consider: 

Range, nature and deployment.



Gaps in the coverage.



Balance and emphasis.



Design basis.



Frequency - too little/too much.



Responsibility for collecting, analysing and reporting measurement information.



Corrective action arrangements.



Effectiveness in driving improvement.

This might best be done using a team approach involving managers, supervisors, employees and safety representatives. The first aim should be to develop a measurement system which provides information to enable the organisation to comply with relevant legal requirements as a minimum. Performance review describes the part of the safety management process by which information collected by monitoring and auditing is then used to make judgments about the adequacy of performance and take decisions about actions necessary to maintain continuous improvement. The effectiveness of any system is dependent on getting feedback about how it is doing.

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Set Targets Performance measurement can only quantify the performance of an organisation; setting targets can challenge the organisation to do better. It is crucial that the targets are realistic (not a ‘wish list’) but at the same time challenging for the organisation and its staff. Good targets will be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-oriented and Time-bound. Staff should ideally ‘own’ their indicators, particularly where operational and local measures are concerned, and should be able to understand and accept the validity of corporate or national indicators and targets. They should understand the link between the indicators they use and corporate objectives, and be consulted so that they can bring their detailed knowledge to bear on definitions and data collection processes. Managers at all levels are more likely to feel motivated by the performance measurement system if they are able to identify the impact of their efforts. The way in which information is presented can also have a significant impact on the way in which managers – and senior managers particularly – understand the performance information, and ‘buy in’ to the findings. Within an organisation, indicators and targets should be related to the authority of the manager concerned. Pressure for immediate good performance can lead to attention being given to short-term targets at the expense of long-term objectives. Lack of clear objectives can also lead to the wrong things being measured or a data-driven process.

Benchmarking The following are benefits of the benchmarking process: 

Improve your reputation (important in getting contracts).



Learn from others rather than ‘reinvent the wheel’.



Develop relationships with customers and suppliers.



Find out where you stand in health and safety terms.



Save money and stay competitive.



Improve health and safety management and reduce risks.

The guidance identifies five steps in the process: 1.

Decide what to benchmark.

Processes, procedures, performance. 2.

Analyse where you are.

Performance measures based on audits or other monitoring techniques. 3.

Select partners. Small organisations will need to select external partners, but large organisations could also employ internal benchmarking against other departments or units.

4.

Work with partners.

Ensure that information exchanged is comparable and respect confidentiality. 5.

Act on the lessons learned.

Devise a SMART action plan, implement it, review it and aim for continuous improvement. To succeed in health and safety benchmarking, an organisation needs:

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

Senior management commitment and resources.



Employee involvement.



An open and participative approach.



An ability to identify strengths and weaknesses.



To be able to compare data on a meaningful basis.



To start with proper planning and preparation.

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Techniques to Interpret and Disseminate Findings Statistical Analysis Accident and incident data can be used to measure whether performance is improving or deteriorating. It can also be used to compare data over time, e.g. compare this year's figures with last year's. This trend analysis, however, can be affected by a number of factors other than whether the safety management systems in place are effective. For example, an increase in the amount of work carried out by an organisation may lead to more accidents, but this does not necessarily mean that the safety performance has deteriorated. Similarly, a reduction in work may lead to a reduction in accidents, whether or not there are any changes to the safety management practices. The simplest method of trend analysis is to plot on a graph the numbers of accidents or incidents against time. The measure of time used, e.g. monthly, quarterly, annually, should be considered, as different time periodicities may show the trend better than others. In addition, it is possible to include a measure of severity, e.g. by plotting the number of days lost through sickness, or the costs of damage/repair. Epidemiological analysis may identify a pattern in data distribution, but it does not give information on why the pattern is occurring. The pattern must then be analysed to determine whether causal factors can be identified and remedial action taken. Epidemiology is used to identify problems which would not be apparent from single incidents, e.g. to determine whether a number of individual cases of food poisoning are linked and, therefore, may constitute an outbreak. It is only possible to carry out an epidemiological analysis when the same type of information is available for all of the accidents being analysed. It is easy to see that the different types of analysis may identify different patterns or trends. These patterns and trends are extremely useful in identifying what is happening within an organisation and can help to identify what actions must be taken to improve safety performance.

Graphs Histograms 'Histogram' is the name given to a particular type of bar chart. It is the diagram used to illustrate a frequency distribution and it always has the following features: 

All the columns are joined together.



Both axes have scales:



−

The horizontal axis carries the variable under consideration.

−

The vertical axis shows the frequency with which the values of the variable occur.

The bars are all the same width but the values of the variable need not begin at zero, i.e. the first column of the histogram need not touch the frequency axis.

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Example 1 The following table shows the simple frequency distribution of the number of days' absence caused by 60 lost-time accidents. (Columns 1 and 2 form the frequency distribution, columns 3 and 4 are calculated as shown from the frequency distribution.) The histogram (the next figure) is based on this table. Days Lost per Accident Days lost per Accident x

No. of Accidents Causing Lost Time f

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totals

Man-Days Lost fx

3 5 7 12 9 8 6 5 1 3 1 60

0 5 14 36 36 40 36 35 8 27 10 247

Cumulative Frequency fcum 3 8 15 27 36 44 50 55 56 59 60 -

Frequency 12 10 8 6 4 2

Mode

0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

No. of Days Lost

Lost-Time Accidents Causing Specified Number of Days' Absence

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Example 2 When the variable can take a very large number of values, it is not practicable to construct either a frequency distribution or a histogram by the method given in Example 1; so we divide the values of x into a number of equal-sized groups and treat each group as a single unit. Such a distribution is known as a grouped frequency distribution. (If any calculations need to be carried out, the groups are represented by the value of x at the mid-point of each as a typical value.) The following table shows the number of employees in the given age groups in an organisation that employs 300 people. The next figure is the histogram based on this table. Number of Employees in Specified Age Groups Age Groups

No. of Employees

Cumulative Frequency

Mid-Points

f

fcum

x

16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 Totals

40 45 55 40 35 30 20 15 12 8 300

40 85 140 180 215 245 265 280 292 300 -

18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 -

Frequency 60 Mid-point

50 40 30 20 10 0

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Age

Number of Employees in Specified Age Groups

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Pie Charts These are circular diagrams, where the pie is divided into 'slices' representing the fractions into which the total of the variable is divided. To construct the diagram, the quantities must be converted into fractions of 360°, then a pair of compasses and a protractor are used to draw the chart. (The fraction is often expressed as a percentage.) The next figure is an example.

Dept B 11.4%

Dept A 51.4%

Dept C 24.4%

Dept D 12.8%

Proportion of Lost-Time Accidents for Each Department

Cusum Charts A cusum chart is a type of control chart. It is concerned with the slope of a plotted line. This type of chart is used typically by the chemical industry to determine a shift in the level of a process. It is basically a quality check using a set of measurements over time. The quality check could relate to weight or length of a product or a temperature attained, for example. The data may be individual measurements or sample averages. It is important to assign a target value for the quality characteristic. The target value may be a specification or a longterm process average. The cusum score is the cumulative sum of the deviations from the target. It is obtained by adding the deviation from the target to the cusum score from the previous sample number. The cusum score is then plotted against each sample. Changes in the slope of the plotted line will be of interest. The following cusum chart tracks energy consumption over a period of time and represents the difference between the baseline (expected or ‘standard’ consumption) and the actual consumption data points over the baseline period of time. The chart therefore follows a trend, which represents the random fluctuations of energy consumption and should oscillate about zero. This trend will continue until something happens to alter the pattern of consumption, such as the effect of an energy-saving measure or, conversely, a worsening in energy efficiency (poor control, housekeeping or maintenance). We can see that in January 2000, performance was better than standard. Performance then declined (going up) until April, then it started to improve until July. However, from July onwards there is a marked, on-going decline in performance, i.e. the line shows an upward trend. When looking at this example of a cusum

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chart, the changes in direction of the line indicate events that have relevance to the energy consumption pattern.

Example of a Cusum Chart

Line Graphs A graph (or line graph) shows the relationship between two variables. Many graphs are needed to show all the values in a table of data. It is possible to plot a number of sets of values on one graph if one of the variables remains the same for each. The slope of the graph shows the rate of change.

Gap Analysis A gap analysis is a technique used to analyse/assess where an organisation currently is in terms of health and safety performance and to compare this with where it would like to be in the future. A gap analysis is sometimes referred to as a ‘needs assessment’ or a ‘needs analysis’. The detailed results of a gap analysis identify the ‘gaps’ between the current position and where the organisation would like to be. The results are used to create a plan of action, so that the ‘gaps’ are filled in and the goal(s) realised. One of the first steps in an organisation’s Health and Safety Management System (HSMS) transition or implementation project should be to compare the current HSMS to the requirements of an appropriate HSMS standard such as BS 8800, or OHSAS 18001. One method of carrying this out is by the use of an HSMS audit and there are proprietary systems available based on defined audit question sets. There is also the option for organisations to develop their own. Wherever the question set is derived from, the most important tool for the gap analysis is the list of the requirements of the chosen HSMS written in question format. An auditor can then use this list to compare the HSMS that is in place with the requirements of the chosen HSMS.

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Aligning Continuous Improvement to the Corporate Vision If managing directors or chief executive officers were asked how they measured their companies' performance, they would probably mention measures like percentage profit, return on investment or market share. A common feature of the measures quoted would be that they are generally positive in nature - reflecting achievement - rather than negative, reflecting failure. If the same people were asked how they measured their companies' health and safety performance, it is likely that the only measure quoted would be injury statistics. While the general business performance of an organisation is subject to a range of positive measures, for health and safety it too often comes down to one negative measure, injury and ill-health statistics - measures of failures. Health and safety differs from many areas measured by managers, because success results in the absence of an outcome (injuries or ill-health) rather than a presence. But a low injury or ill-health rate, even over a period of years, is no guarantee that risks are being controlled and will not lead to injuries or ill-health in the future. This is particularly true in organisations where there is a low probability of accidents but where major hazards are present. Here the historical record can be a deceptive indicator of safety performance. Organisations need to recognise that there is no single reliable measure of health and safety performance. What is required is a 'basket' of measures or a 'balanced scorecard', providing information on a range of health and safety activities. As organisations recognise the importance of managing health and safety, they become aware of the problems with using injury and ill-health statistics alone as the only measure of health and safety performance. Because of the drawbacks associated with the use of injury and ill-health data alone as a means of measuring performance, some organisations have recognised that they need more proactive or 'upstream' measures of performance. Generally this is translated into a search for things which can be easily counted, such as numbers of training courses or numbers of inspections. What is usually absent is a systematic approach to deriving these measures and how they link to the risk control process. This is similar to the period before the appearance of health and safety management system models, when there was activity on health and safety but little understanding of where that activity fitted within the overall health and safety management framework. The scatter-gun or random approach, based purely on what is easiest to measure, is of limited value. The resultant data provides no information on how the figure was arrived at, whether it is 'acceptable' (i.e. good/bad) or the quality and effectiveness of the activity. A more disciplined approach to health and safety performance measurement is required. This needs to develop as the health and safety management system develops. This is important not only to ensure that measurement is effective, but also to ensure effective use of the resources used to measure performance. In order to achieve an outcome of no injuries or work-related ill-health, and satisfy stakeholders, health and safety risks need to be controlled. Effective risk control is founded on an effective health and safety management system.

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An effective health and safety management system should comprise of three layers: 

Effective workplace precautions - provided and maintained to prevent harm to people at the point of risk, e.g. a machine guard.



Risk control systems - the basis for ensuring that adequate workplace precautions are provided and maintained. These risk control systems are there to ensure that by means of supervision, training, inspections, etc. the workplace precautions continue to work; for example, that the guard stays on the machine, works effectively and people use it properly.



The management arrangements - necessary to organise, plan, control and monitor the design and implementation of risk control systems. The safety management system oversees the whole process of planning, implementing and maintaining the risk control systems, e.g. the policy on guarding, the management responsibilities for guarding, the competency of staff to use guards, the monitoring of guarding arrangements, and the review of the whole process.

To effectively answer the question, ”What is our health and safety performance?”, performance measurement should be based on a balanced approach which combines: 

Inputs: monitoring the scale, nature and distribution of hazards created by the organisation's activities - measures of the hazard burden.



Process: proactive monitoring of the adequacy, development, implementation and deployment of the health and safety management system and the activities to promote a positive health and safety culture - measures of success.



Outcomes: reactive monitoring of adverse outcomes resulting in injuries, ill-health, or loss, and accidents with the potential to cause injuries, ill-health or loss - measures of failures.

Health and safety performance needs to be measured at each management level in an organisation, starting with the most senior management. Senior managers must guard against a culture of management, or measurement of health and safety, by exception. This means that unless a problem or deficiency is brought to their attention, they presume that everything is working as intended and do not enquire any further. Organisations need to decide how to allocate responsibilities for both active and reactive monitoring of performance at different levels in the management chain. They should also decide what level of detail is appropriate. The decisions will reflect the organisation's structure. Managers should be given responsibility for monitoring the achievement of plans and objectives and compliance with standards for which they and their subordinates are responsible. Managers and supervisors responsible for direct implementation of standards should monitor compliance in detail and be competent to do so. Above this immediate level of control, monitoring needs to be more selective but provide assurance that adequate first-line monitoring is taking place. This should reflect not only the quantity but also the quality of subordinates' monitoring. There need to be performance standards (who does what when, to what effect) for managers to indicate how they will monitor.

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Avoiding Complacency A common problem with any management initiative - and drives to improve health and safety performance are no exception - is loss of momentum, interest and/or complacency. We can employ business terminology, when we consider the desire for continuous improvement in health and safety performance, and use the term ‘corporate turnaround’. Corporate turnaround is described as "a substantial and sustainable positive change in the performance of a business". There are many different types of businesses, but there are just a handful of reasons why management initiatives fail. In most companies, turnaround actions commence only after the senior management accept and recognise: (a) that the company is in real danger and that this is a real crisis; and (b) that the problem is large and small improvements will not solve it. Often the management try to remedy the situation themselves and this can result in success. However, it is the existing management that have allowed standards to decline and typically get mesmerised by the problems, do not have enough time to deal with them because of the normal pressures of running a company, or are not skilled and experienced enough to successfully apply health and safety management techniques. Too often one finds that management have only responded reactively to improve things and, as each month goes by, the problems escalate and get deeper. Personal responsibilities and liabilities and the possibility of enforcement action may help to focus the mind. Where serious commercial problems develop, companies may engage the assistance of a turnaround manager. These individuals not only have the necessary skills in turnaround situations, but ideally have also owned or operated a business. They have broad business knowledge, an ability to learn very fast and very disciplined thinking. They move quickly, are organised and have absolute integrity. They have a proven track record in evaluating issues and taking swift corrective action. The process they follow is based on: 

Disciplined and systematic application of planning, controlling, organising and motivating.



Taking calculated risks.



Planning for contingencies.



Independent, creative thought.



Steady hard work.



Skill in dealing with people at all levels and working alongside external agencies.

There are parallels with drives to improve health and safety performance and programmes to improve health and safety culture. The turnaround timetable is the same for any company that requires ‘intensive care’ when complacency and stagnation set in: 

Stop the decline.



Quick stabilisation.



Create some breathing space through short-term actions based on risk priorities.



Rapid payback is king.



Education of management to detect/prevent the situation recurring.

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In the majority of cases of companies losing their way, it is normally due to the inability or complacency of management. One rule of thumb is that the length of time it took the company to get in the rut equals the length of time to fully recover. Achieving a positive health and safety culture is considered to take at least five years. More often than not, management for some reason lose sight of the basics necessary for maintaining acceptable levels of health and safety performance. They have drifted into some sort of apathy and then seem blinded in finding the solution. Often the agent for change will be telling the board things they already know, but have failed to acknowledge and deal with. With all businesses, there is a set of indicators that are fundamental to measuring and monitoring how the company is performing. These tend to get abandoned over time when complacency sets in, but they are key for keeping a finger on the pulse. They are critical for highlighting when things are starting to move off-course. Benchmarking is also a much underutilised tool. Comparing an organisation with the competition can be a very fruitful exercise. Where a particular sector is supported by an industry association, there may be reports on industry performance standards. Lack of clarity within the organisation regarding responsibility and accountability, little objective and target setting and no drive to take the company onward and upward are common causes of failing performance. Momentum needs to be created by harnessing the existing management hierarchy. Although turnarounds to stop complacency and revitalise the health and safety programme can be difficult and extremely demanding, the maintenance of a positive and dynamic health and safety culture is critical in achieving the aim of continuous improvement.

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C O N T E N T S Study Unit

Title

3A5

Effective Health and Safety Training

Page

TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................. 3 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 3 INDUCTION TRAINING ..................................................................................................................................... 12 PURPOSE AND REASONS FOR INDUCTION TRAINING........................................................................................................ 12 PREPARING INFORMATION FOR INDUCTION TRAINING ................................................................................ 15 DEVELOPING A TRAINING SESSION................................................................................................................. 18 VENUE .............................................................................................................................................................. 18 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................ 18 DOCUMENTATION................................................................................................................................................. 19 SCHEDULING ...................................................................................................................................................... 20 DELIVERING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING SESSION............................................................................................. 21 DEFINING LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. 21 KNOW THE INTENDED AUDIENCE .............................................................................................................................. 22 PREPARE THE SESSION .......................................................................................................................................... 23 PREPARE THE VENUE ............................................................................................................................................. 23 SELECT THE APPROPRIATE TRAINING STYLE ................................................................................................................. 24 PREPARE HANDOUTS OR TRAINING NOTES .................................................................................................................. 26 PREPARE VISUAL AIDS ........................................................................................................................................... 26 INTERACT WITH TRAINEES ...................................................................................................................................... 27 TIMING ............................................................................................................................................................. 28 PROVIDE FOR EMERGENCIES.................................................................................................................................... 28 EVALUATING TRAINING ................................................................................................................................... 29 METHODS OF EVALUATION...................................................................................................................................... 29 QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED ................................................................................................................................. 31 VALIDATING TRAINING.................................................................................................................................... 33 VALIDATION BY AN EXTERNAL AUTHORITY ................................................................................................................... 33 INTERNAL QUALITY CONTROL OF THE TRAINING PROVIDER .............................................................................................. 33 EXAMINATION OF THE PARTICIPANTS ......................................................................................................................... 34 ANALYSIS OF THE EXAMINATION RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 34 EVALUATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PARTICIPANTS ............................................................................................... 34


BSC International Diploma | Unit 3 Study Unit 3A5 | Effective Health and Safety Training Learning Outcomes When you have worked through this Study Unit, you will be able to:

➢

Conduct a training needs analysis.

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Explain the need for induction training.

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Prepare information for induction training.

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Develop an effective training session.

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Deliver an effective training session.

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Evaluate the effectiveness of training.

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Develop quality assurance mechanisms for training.

Unit 10:

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Training Needs Analysis Health and safety in any organisation depends on how well-trained its employees are. Training motivates staff to work safely, since those who understand the risks of their jobs better are likely to be more motivated to avoid them. Training is an on-going, continuous process, since new problems, procedures, materials and knowledge mean jobs are constantly changing and therefore producing the need for employee instruction. Training should follow a systematic process. A framework for this, known as the training cycle, is shown below. Identify Training Needs

Evaluate Training Effectiveness

Prepare Plans to Meet the Training Needs

Implement Training

The Training Cycle In order to carry out systematic training, it is first necessary to define a ‘training need’. A training need arises where there is a requirement in the job performance of an individual, or a group, which can be met by training. A training need then may be defined as: The gap between the skills, knowledge or attitude which a job demands, and those which are currently possessed by the employee. It comes about therefore where there is a requirement in the job performance, either of an individual or a group, which can be met by training - that is, where the gap may be closed by training. The organisation as a whole may be said to have a training need or needs when it is apparent that it is not capable of meeting the objectives set in its business plan. It is important to recognise that training is often only one option which can be used to solve a job performance problem. Sometimes problems which seem to suggest a need for training are shown to require other solutions instead, such as new working methods, improved equipment or a change in the way the work is organised. Sometimes training is a part of the solution in that it is required in order to help implement these other changes.

Different Approaches to Training Needs Analysis Careful analysis of the needs on which training should be based is the foundation of effective training. If training provisions are not based on an analysis of needs, or the analysis is inaccurate, then the chances of training being effective are substantially reduced. Often a manager or supervisor will become aware of a need for training employees because of changes in their behaviour, attitude or in the way they carry out a certain task. Job analysis and job safety analysis may show areas of work where performance could be improved through additional training. Performance appraisal interviews can also help identify

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where and when training may be beneficial. In many cases, the initiative will come from the employee and training will be requested to improve performance, reward and job satisfaction. Training can also be part of a manpower planning exercise in which present and future trends, including safety needs, are matched against present resources and a ‘training gap’ is identified. A manpower planning exercise should be on-going and should take account of internal and external changes; for example, the introduction of cultural changes within an organisation, which may include the development of a safety culture; or the adoption of a quality assurance approach. If there are problems with health, safety or environmental control, then training in minimum requirements and good practice becomes essential. Again the manpower plan approach has identified a training gap, which will have to be filled through a training programme. Changes in the law will also impact on staff’s training needs. Training needs can therefore change as a result of internal and external factors.

Identifying Training Needs Different Types of Need •

Knowledge All employees need a certain level of work knowledge and skills, and some jobs call for more technical expertise and knowledge than others.

•

Skills In analysing training needs, a common error is to specify needs relating to knowledge without defining related needs to develop skills.

•

Attitudes There are many tasks for which having the appropriate attitude is very important, even a crucial part of the job. Changing people’s attitudes is probably a more ambitious training objective than that of providing knowledge or developing skills, so it is important that the attitudes needed are defined as precisely as possible.

Corporate and Individual Needs Some training needs apply to large numbers of employees - entire workforces in some cases others apply only to particular individual employees. In broad terms, three different levels at which training needs apply can be distinguished: •

Corporate Level There are relatively few areas of knowledge or skills which apply literally to all employees within large organisations in which task specialisation is common, although some knowledge of safety matters, e.g. fire evacuation procedures, is obviously of universal relevance.

•

Group Level More frequently, training needs apply only to a section of the workforce - groups of employees whose jobs include responsibilities for certain tasks.

•

Individual Level Other needs are particular to individual employees. They reflect specialist knowledge or skills required for specific jobs. In some cases they reflect weaknesses in current performance which can be corrected by training.

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Methods of Identifying Needs One of the most difficult problems in training is to establish and maintain systematic means of identifying training needs. In many cases a training need is identified when errors occur or when accidents occur. The difficulty relates more to training needs which arise for employees who are already employed in established jobs. Defining training needs for ‘pre-entry’ training programmes is a matter of rigorous job analysis, which should be well within the ability of any instructor or training officer. Identifying the ad hoc needs which arise from changes in the requirements of jobs or from weaknesses in individual performance is not a task which can be carried out by specialists. A system must be devised which involves managers, supervisors and individual job-holders. Such a system involves gaining information - normally from a combination of the following sources: •

Performance Appraisals One of the major benefits of a performance-appraisal system is that it provides a means whereby a regular check on training needs can be carried out, and the results of this communicated to a central source.

•

Questionnaires Many training officers issue questionnaires to managers and supervisors as a means of identifying training needs. A well-designed questionnaire, limited in its subject-matter to training needs, is a useful means of gaining information, although there is always difficulty in getting respondents to return questionnaires.

•

Interviewing Interviewing as a means of getting information is more time-consuming than issuing questionnaires, but it offers the advantage of greater flexibility. In identifying training needs, interviews may be carried out with: −

Job-holders - current involvement in performing a job may enable the job-holder to pinpoint problems which can be overcome by training.

−

Managers/supervisors - some training needs are more likely to be defined by the manager or supervisor responsible for the job-holder.

What Training is Required? All staff must be provided with the specific knowledge required to operate safely in the particular workplace, using the particular plant and machinery according to the recognised safe systems of work. The provision of that knowledge through training, instruction and other forms of information is a major responsibility of the employer. Training and instruction must be suitable for the employee. The main instances where training is required may be classified as follows: 

Training given to all new employees when they take up their posts – induction training.



Training which becomes necessary because of changes carried out in the business, such as: −

New working methods being introduced.

−

Technological changes.

−

The introduction of new equipment.

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

Training needed when new legislation comes into force.

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The identification of training needs due to problems such as: −

An increase in accidents.

−

Failure to maintain equipment.

−

Labour shortages which lead to the upgrading or retraining of existing staff.

All training should be constantly reviewed in order to ensure that it remains up-to-date, relevant, and adequate for its purpose.

Who Needs to be Trained? Safety training is of vital importance both to the company and employees, particularly newcomers.

Newcomers A newcomer could be run down by a forklift truck on the first day, or a fire could break out soon after his arrival, so safety, accident prevention and fire prevention should begin on the first morning with the immediate dangers of the working environment and procedures to be followed in case of fire or accident. Later sessions should progress to the joint responsibilities of management and employees for safe working practices and give more detailed attention to the causes and prevention of, say, fire.

Young People Special attention should be given to the safety training needs of young people. In the UK this is recognised by legislation, which requires that the vulnerability of young persons is taken into account in the risk assessment process and that this is reflected in the resulting safe systems of work and associated training. Young persons are defined as being persons who have not attained 18 years. Best practice suggests: 

A requirement to take particular account of psychological and physiological factors when carrying out or reviewing risk assessments. The assessment should take into account the inexperience and immaturity of the young persons and also their possible lack of awareness of existing or potential risks. There may be situations where these factors are of sufficient importance that the young persons should be prohibited from the work. In other cases, provision of additional supervision and information may be necessary. Particular physiological factors which should be considered in relation to the immaturity of young persons include: −

Availability of PPE which is suitable for young persons (e.g. appropriate fit).

−

Stature, strength and reach of young persons in relation to their ability to operate controls.

−

Body dimensions of young persons in relation to safe distances used to prevent access to danger zones.

−

Risks arising from certain workplace agents and processes.

−

Work where pace is determined by machinery (muscle strength not fully developed).

−

Work in high pressure atmospheres (bones not fully developed and may be at greater risk of long-term harm).

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−

Ionising radiation (slightly greater risk of developing cancer and hereditary effects).

−

Whole body vibration (WBV) (greater risk of spinal damage as bones not fully matured and muscle strength not fully developed).

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A requirement that the risk assessment be carried out before the young person starts work.

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A requirement to prohibit young persons from certain work, if the risk assessment identifies a significant risk which cannot be eliminated.

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A requirement to take measures to ensure that young persons are not exposed to significant risk. These measures should be based on the outcome of the risk assessment and in some cases may include the employer prohibiting the young person from certain types of work. This type of prohibition is most likely to arise in situations where the experience, maturity and awareness of a young person would be insufficient to allow the work to be carried out without significant risk.

These requirements must then be taken into account when assessing the training needs of young persons.

Job or Process Change Whenever there is a change to the job or tasks which employees are expected to perform, the employer must arrange for them to receive appropriate training. This applies when individuals change jobs or when there is a change in the nature of the job – through the adoption of new procedures or processes, or the introduction of new technology to it. This is clearly necessary in respect of acquiring the new knowledge and skills necessary for effective performance, but also relates to the implications of the change for health and safety at the workplace. In some ways, experienced workers may be in more need of this than new recruits in that they may feel that, being experienced, they are aware of all the hazards and risks and know what to do, when in fact that may not be the case. Allied to situations where the job changes are situations where the skills necessary for effective performance for an existing job or role change. A good example of this is in respect of firstaiders, who need to keep their knowledge and skills up-to-date and should go on regular refresher training courses.

Promotion Particular needs arise when employees are promoted into management roles, usually as supervisors in the first instance. The change in their role in respect of health and safety is quite substantial, involving taking responsibility for workers’ compliance with the rules and ensuring appropriate instruction is given.

Priority and Frequency of Training All training is expensive, both from the point of view of the cost of the course and also because the recipient will not be working while he is attending the training course. Equally, some training needs will be more critical than others. Managers will have to set priorities for each employee, both in terms of budget and also timing. Training will need to be repeated periodically to take account of changing conditions both within and outside the company. A major factor is legislation. The area of health and safety is regulated by law and employers must ensure that they comply with its demands at all times. This means that, as laws are amended or new legislation is passed, they must set up procedures for implementing the new requirements.

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There are two aspects to setting up the necessary procedures: 

A need to monitor developments to ensure that they are aware of impending changes and can take the necessary action.



A need to provide structured training to all staff – management and workers alike – who will be affected by the changes.

Legislative Requirements When carrying out a training needs analysis, it is important to ensure that the company is complying with any specific legislative requirements. Employers must also ensure that each user at work in his undertaking is provided with adequate health and safety training whenever the organisation of any workstation in that undertaking upon which he may be required to work is substantially modified.

Training Provided from Internal Resources or an External Provider The four basic types of resources necessary for training are: 

Financial (without which nothing can be achieved).



Human.



Accommodation.



Equipment.

As part of the training needs analysis, a decision will have to be made as to whether the training can be provided from internal resources or whether an external provider is required. An organisation may have the following internal human resources: 

Training Manager - this role includes responsibility for organising training throughout the organisation. It includes the design and administration of training courses, the provision of advice on training matters to senior management, liaison with training providers and the maintenance of contacts with training organisations. It may also include the delivery of training.



Instructor - these are directly in contact with trainees and are in most cases concerned with off-the-job instruction in a training workshop, office, laboratory, etc. Instructors do not always design courses. They are usually recruited from proficient workers, who are then given training themselves in methods of imparting their practical skills to others.

The role of external training provider may be performed by a number of agents, such as training organisations, colleges, etc. or by consultants who may operate either on or off the organisation’s premises.

On-the-Job Methods Learning on-the-job provides trainees with experience which is a combination of work-based knowledge and the development of skills. As the trainee gains experience, the range and complexity of tasks which he can undertake without detailed guidance increases. This process of learning can be improved by several means: •

Demonstration A preliminary to much learning by experience is for an experienced instructor to demonstrate to trainees how to carry out a particular task. Demonstration is an essential preliminary to operating most machines and equipment.

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•

Coaching A trainee’s understanding and speed of learning can be substantially improved with effective coaching by an experienced instructor. ‘Coaching’ is a term used to define the process by which a trainee learns by carrying out tasks under guidance from an experienced person. The instructor gives guidance and feedback to the trainee, and provides encouragement and assistance in overcoming difficulties. A great deal of coaching is provided on-the-job and, as such, is hard to distinguish from routine supervision. An ability to coach subordinates is a basic supervisory skill, and staff who have supervisory responsibilities have a training need to acquire coaching skills.

•

Projects Assigning to trainees the task of investigating a problem and analysing potential solutions to that problem, is a popular method of learning in the office. A lot of knowledge of work practices and procedures can be gained; analytical and problem-solving skills can be developed; and in some cases the opportunity to apply knowledge gained at college is available.

Advantages Advantages of on-the-job training include: •

Usually less expensive than off-the-job training because it uses normal equipment in normal surroundings and does not involve paying specialists. However, this has to be balanced against the fact that it often takes longer for the learner to reach an acceptable standard of performance.

•

Learning takes place with the actual items used when the trainee is proficient, so there are no ‘transfer of learning’ problems.

•

The trainee gets used to working under normal working conditions and so does not have to make any adjustments.

Disadvantages Disadvantages of on-the-job training may include: •

The trainee’s supervisor may be a poor teacher (even though an expert at the job), and also may not have sufficient time to do their own job and the training.

•

If the supervisor is involved in some form of bonus scheme, this may discourage them from spending sufficient time with the trainee.

•

The trainee may be shown bad methods of working, and learn these instead of good ones.

•

A large amount of ‘real’ work may be spoiled.

•

Valuable equipment may be damaged.

•

The training may take place under stressful conditions, and stress can inhibit learning.

•

Theoretical training can seldom take place on the job.

•

It is harder to train a large group of employees at any one time.

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Off-the-Job Methods •

Presentations A presentation is a means of one-way communication in which all the talking is done by the presenter. The main advantage of this method is that large numbers of trainees can be taught simultaneously. There are limitations to this method:

•

−

There is a very low rate of retention of knowledge. Adequate notes, as a backup, are therefore essential.

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Trainees may not understand the presentation and be unable to seek clarification.

Seminars In most forms of commercial training, formal tuition is provided by means of seminars. Discussion is encouraged and trainees can learn from the instructor and from each other. The number of trainees who can usefully participate at one seminar is a limiting factor.

•

Programmed Instruction There is no direct involvement of an instructor, but programmed instruction is provided through a combination of distance or open learning packs, computer or audio-visual programmes. Trainees can use these courses when they have free time, whereas other methods require attendance at potentially inconvenient times. However, there is no feedback with the flexibility of a human instructor, unless the instruction is provided at an open learning centre where a ‘facilitator’ may be available to give some assistance and remedial instruction.

Advantages The advantages of off-the-job training include: •

The training should be of a high quality, since it is provided by specialists.

•

If necessary, simplified equipment can be used, together with simulated exercises.

•

The training can be given in planned stages, using special exercises to enable the learner to master particularly difficult aspects.

•

It can be carried out in a regulated environment, conducive to effective learning.

•

Correct methods of working will be learned from the beginning.

•

No damage will be done to actual working equipment.

•

It is easier to calculate costs for the training, therefore making it easier to budget for it.

Disadvantages Disadvantages of off-the-job training include: •

Several staff must attend at the same time to make it cost-effective.

•

Sometimes difficulties are experienced in transfer of learning, when a learner changes over from training equipment and the training school environment, to actual working equipment and the work environment.

•

The learners are taught by people who will not work with them and evaluate their performance when they move to the actual job.

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No training can be entirely off-the-job. Some aspects of learning can only be experienced in the real working environment, with its own rules and customs and within the personal relationships which exist there.

Selecting External Training Providers In choosing an external provider of training, it may be that a training specialist is not available within the organisation to give you advice. In these cases the following factors need to be taken into account when making your choice: •

Location of the training programme.

•

Which training consultant or provider to use.

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The method(s) of training most appropriate to the organisation’s needs.

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The level of control that the organisation will be able to exercise over the training programme.

•

How to evaluate the relevance and success of the training.

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How trainees will be assisted with the transfer of learning.

•

Measurement of the costs and benefits of the training.

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Induction Training The aim of training is to secure a positive change in the behaviour and attitudes of personnel. Therefore, it is essential to identify the changes in behaviour required before training starts and to set outcomes which can be demonstrated after the training has been received. Learning involves a process within the individual which results in a capacity for changed performance related to experience. Most managers view training as desirable since it increases productivity and reduces learning time. In addition, it improves quality and raises standards, including those relating to health and safety. From the point of view of staff, we can see these additional reasons for training: 

To enable new recruits to become competent and confident workers.



To achieve this with the least waste of time and resources.

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To facilitate their integration into the social working group.

The correct attitudes to health, safety and accident prevention should be included at each stage of the induction programme.

Purpose and Reasons for Induction Training Starting a new job always gives rise to anxiety. However eagerly the recruit anticipates the change of employment, he is bound to wonder whether he will be happy and able to meet the requirements of the new situation. If new employees are over-anxious, they are less likely to learn and, if they do not learn, they are not going to become effective members of the team as quickly as planned. If they are left to find out for themselves as they go along, they will acquire information but it may well be incorrect information, biased and unimportant, and they may develop an attitude to the company and to their jobs which could be considered undesirable. An unpleasant initial impression may soon lead them to change jobs again and then the money spent on their recruitment becomes a drain on the company’s profit instead of an investment for the future. When the costs of advertising, interviewing, training and mistakes made by new staff are calculated, it becomes apparent that getting a person on and then off the payroll is a very expensive exercise. Appropriate induction, however, brings many benefits. It should reduce newcomers’ tension so they are in the right frame of mind to learn their job, and it should give them the distinct impression that they have had the good fortune to join an efficiently run organisation. For the company, these benefits contribute to profitability and lay the foundation of good industrial relations. Systematic induction provides help and support for the employee during the first difficult weeks of employment. It should therefore be in stages, spread over the first month or two of employment. Beginning with the interview, before a decision about joining the company is reached, the person should be supplied with the information required at each stage. Everyone who joins the company, from senior executive to part-timer, needs induction, but the approach and the subject matter should be adapted to the type of employee.

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You should remember that some induction is necessary for anyone transferred to another department or establishment.

Rapid Familiarisation with Health and Safety Issues The immediate concern will be to set out the general instructions and procedures to be followed for safe movement around the workplace and what to do in the event of a fire or accident. Only after that should training move on to the hazards of the specific workplace environment in which the recruit will be working. This should precede instruction in the tasks themselves, ensuring that working safely is given precedence. Later sessions should progress to the joint responsibilities of management and employees for safe working practices and give more detailed attention to the causes and prevention of accidents and fire. By effective induction training: 

Recruitment of school-leavers is improved, transition from school or previous company to the new environment is made less unsettling and the element of personal challenge in a carefully-graded training course induces employees to try to match their talents to the demands of the job.



New workers, both new recruits to the organisation and those changing jobs within it, are enabled to assimilate the requirements of the job, including safety aspects, and become effective quickly.



The best use is made of an employee’s time with the company during the training period. Training time is shortened and wastage of both employees and material is reduced.

Induction will not be 100% successful, however, unless all employees play their part in helping newcomers to settle in to their new environment.

Health and Safety Awareness New staff may come from a variety of environments. Some will be starting their first job; others may have previously worked in a low risk environment where health and safety was not at the top of the agenda. Still others may think that they know all there is to know, from their previous experience. Whatever the background of a new employee, it is essential that he is made aware of the risks to health and safety that can occur in your workplace and of the specific risks and control measures that relate to his tasks. Health and safety awareness is a vital aspect of working safely and must be instilled during the induction programme.

Reinforcing Good Practices With effective induction training, the quick, correct and safe method of performing a task is learnt from the beginning and, as there is less risk of passing on bad and unsafe practices, machinery and equipment are used more effectively. This means there is less likelihood of accidents occurring in the early stages of a worker starting a new job. If training is good, there is less likelihood of a falling off of performance after transfer to the appropriate activity department and employees will more quickly reach and retain high standards of performance both quantitatively and qualitatively. Good induction training also lays a solid foundation for future retraining. This is increasingly important as technology changes quickly, which requires the retraining of employees in the new skills demanded.

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Organisational Health and Safety Culture The key requirement is for people to understand the culture of the organisation. Why is induction important? Well, clearly, wanting to ‘fit in’ is a basic human need for all new recruits to an organisation. It is also true that new recruits are much more amenable to training than veterans, who feel that they already know it all. As a result, induction presents an excellent opportunity to train people in the correct manner. Well trained employees, who both understand the processes in which they are involved and are skilled in operating them, are more productive and work to safer standards. They also tend to stay longer with the employer, ensuring future reliability and continuity. Training is perhaps one of the key weapons in health and safety management, as it can be used to motivate and change the behaviour of the people involved in workplace activities. Its success depends on identifying training needs and providing and evaluating training aimed at satisfying those needs.

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Preparing Information for Induction Training The importance of induction training has already been emphasised and consequently, for such training to be effective, it needs to be comprehensive and cover essential topics such as those considered below. •

Risks to which Employees are Exposed Fundamental to any health and safety training is a consideration of the hazard profile of the organisation (i.e. what are the principal hazards that exist in the workplace) and an understanding of the risks that these hazards present to various occupational groups. So employees need to be aware, not only that there are hazards associated with the use of machinery, for example, but also that there is a risk of injury from entanglement, ejection, impact, etc.

•

Relevant Risk Control Measures Information on the risks within the workplace is important, but of equal importance are the measures to ensure that employees are not exposed to significant risk. These risk control measures are the safe systems of work, safe working procedures, health and safety arrangements contained in the health and safety policy and comprise the health and safety standards that the organisation operates to. It is essential, therefore, that all staff are fully informed of these standards at the earliest opportunity.

•

Emergency Procedures All staff require information on basic emergency procedures such as what to do if a fire is discovered, if the fire alarm sounds, or if an injured person is encountered. Although fire and first-aid procedures will be displayed throughout the workplace, this information must be introduced and reinforced at induction.

•

Risks Notified to Employer by Another Employer Sharing Workplace Risks may arise from activities that are carried out by another employer in a shared workplace, but these will be less obvious than those associated with the employee’s actual job. Office staff may be unaware that minor welding and paint-spraying activities are carried out by a car repair business located in an adjacent outbuilding, but they need to know about the associated fire and explosion risks.

•

Specific Site Rules As well as safe working procedures for particular activities, there may also be specific site rules that employees need to be aware of. These may vary from site to site if the company operates at a number of locations and this could be particularly significant for employees who work at more than one site.

•

Restricted Areas As well as specific site rules, there may also be particular restricted areas where only competent, authorised personnel may be allowed to work. Controlled radiation areas are an example of this and staff need to be informed of the restrictions on such areas.

•

Restrictions and Special Requirements for Use of Equipment Certain items of equipment may also be restricted to competent, authorised personnel only. Woodworking equipment is particularly dangerous, although attractively laboursaving to untrained staff. Similarly, forklift trucks can considerably reduce the effort

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involved in handling materials. However, both items of equipment must be restricted to trained and authorised persons only and staff must be informed of these restrictions. •

Welfare and Amenity Provisions Staff need to be informed about toilets, washing facilities, drinking water provision, accommodation for clothing, facilities for changing clothing and rest facilities.

•

Reporting Procedures There are legal requirements for the reporting of accidents and dangerous occurrences, and for bringing to the attention of the employer serious and imminent danger or shortcomings in the employer’s health and safety arrangements. Consequently, staff need to be informed of the nature of these requirements and what the various reporting procedures are.

•

Personal Duties and Responsibilities Best practice places duties on employees, to work safely and co-operate with the employer. Employees need to know what their legal responsibilities are and the requirement for co-operation should be nurtured at the earliest opportunity during induction.

•

Consultation System Co-operation and consultation are essential elements of the health and safety management system and safety representatives can play a key role in maintaining an effective system. Information on the operation of the Health and Safety Committee and the arrangements regarding appointment, role and function of safety representatives should be covered at induction.

•

Occupational Health Provision Occupational health services have an important role to play in health promotion, health screening, health surveillance and possibly counselling. The effectiveness of the occupational health service depends greatly on the extent to which employees utilise the service and co-operate with the occupational health specialists. The role and function of the service needs to be brought to the attention of new employees and its value promoted.

•

Further Training Requirements



Induction training is only the starting point for ensuring the competence of employees. Further specialised training will be required which is job or role specific. However, the induction training session(s) can be used to highlight this and also as a means to check on existing levels of competence and to establish what further training might be required.

The induction training for managers will need to be enhanced to provide them with more detail on: 

Company safety policy and plans.



Legal duties of the company.



Specific legislation covering company activities and premises.



Risk assessment, safety auditing and inspections.



Hazards associated with the company’s processes, products, services, premises, waste, risk management and accident prevention.

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

Grievance procedures and disciplinary procedures relating to health and safety.



Employee motivation and involvement in health and safety aims.

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Developing a Training Session An effective training session can be designed using the following framework: 

The venue.



The materials.



The documentation.



Scheduling.

Venue An important consideration when developing a training session is whether the venue is appropriate. There is no point in planning a complex presentation if you haven’t checked the venue first. The rooms provided for training need to be of a suitable size and shape. The size will depend upon the number of members in the average group; the ‘best’ shape is usually either square or oblong, with adjacent wall dimensions in the ratio of 3 to 4. Well-designed seating should be provided, bearing in mind that trainees often spend a lot of their class time sitting down. In addition good heating, lighting, ventilation and a suitable noise level are important. Other questions likely to be asked include: 

Is there sufficient space for you, your audience and your equipment?



Are the seating arrangements appropriate for your presentation?



Will you be using a stage or will participants be seated around a table?

The venue chosen should be accessible for all those who are to take part in the training session, including any trainees with disabilities. It should offer an appropriate degree of comfort and ensure that there will be no interruptions due to noise or other distractions. Cost will be an important factor if facilities outside the organisation are used.

Materials Developing the materials for a training session is a process which must be done carefully and thoroughly, over a period of some weeks, so that you can think of all the factors involved and have time to undertake any research which may be necessary. Audio-visual material needs to be well planned if it is to be effective, adding further force to the need to begin preparing well in advance.

Visual Aids A training session will often make extensive use of visual aids. You may wish to present graphic material, or play recordings of meetings or other encounters during your presentation. If so, make sure that you know where the illustrations should come, and that they are easily available. Make sure that all your equipment is in proper working order and that, if you are not able to use it yourself, there is a qualified technician on hand to assist. A suitable number of power points should be provided in order to avoid the use of socket adaptors or extension leads, both of which constitute potential safety hazards. The major pieces of equipment needed include a whiteboard and flipcharts together with suitable pens,

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plus an overhead projector with an adequate screen which can be angled so as to produce a picture focused properly all over, rather than an elongated ‘keyhole’ effect. Some form of photocopier is also essential, together with a word processing facility in order to produce handout material of a good quality. Other electrical equipment which needs to be available includes slide projectors, a video recorder and, if appropriate, closed-circuit television (CCTV).

Demonstration Equipment All training sessions can be greatly improved by the use of demonstrations. With some training sessions, the aim is to show how to perform certain tasks, so hands-on demonstrations are essential. The use of PPE is an obvious example where the range of available equipment can be shown and the way it should be used demonstrated. Similarly, first-aid is another practical subject and difficult to teach without resuscitation aids. However, even awareness training sessions can be made more effective by the use of 'props'. A 'black museum' of dangerous electrical equipment and components is invaluable when teaching electrical safety and any confiscated pieces of unsafe work equipment obtained following accident investigations will reinforce the message on safety awareness.

Documentation A training session will often make extensive use of duplicated or printed material that can be circulated to the trainees before or during the session. Think carefully about what duplicated or printed material you need to prepare for circulation amongst your listeners. Some trainers prefer to give a complete note-form summary of their presentation; others prefer to circulate bibliographies or lists of references, or more detailed summaries of aspects only touched upon in the actual presentation. Whatever plan you decide to follow, make sure that the material is written and prepared in advance, and made available at the right time in the session. Some people prefer to hand out materials at the outset to avoid interruptions. Others feel listeners concentrate better without materials to refer to. In this case, ensure overhead notes are short and clear, if people wish to make notes. In addition to handouts and training booklets or leaflets, other documentation will be required for the purpose of evaluation and administration. A questionnaire may be designed to enable course participants to express their views on the usefulness of the training received, with the aim of making improvements for future participants. Records of the course and its participants will also need to be kept for administration purposes.

Information about the Training Trainees and their line managers will require information about the training to be provided. Trainees need to know: 

Why the training is being provided.



What it is designed to cover.



What they need to do to get the most out of the training.



The benefits the training will provide.

Line managers require information such as: 

How the training meets legal requirements.

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

How much it will cost the company.



What additional support trainees will require.



What level of expertise trainees can be expected to acquire.

In addition, you will need to provide information about the registration arrangements for the training.

Scheduling The last item in the framework for developing a training session is by no means the least. Without careful attention to scheduling and co-ordination, the plans for a training session will founder. 

The session must be firmly booked in the diaries of those responsible for delivering the training.



Trainers must set aside time for preparing materials.



Trainees scheduled to attend the course must be released from work responsibilities for the duration of it and arrangements made to cover their absence.



The venue must be booked and its availability confirmed should circumstances intervene that might prevent its use.

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Delivering an Effective Training Session Defining Learning Objectives You should have a clear idea of what you will talk about and what issues are likely to arise, so that you can deal with questions and discussion points. Only if you have a very clear definition of the exact nature of your subject will the training session be successful and worthwhile. All training programmes should have an aim and a set of learning objectives. To convert general aims into practical objectives, you must clarify in a detailed statement the kind of ‘behaviour’ you are willing to accept as proving that learning has taken place. A learning objective requires a goal or target, whereas an aim is more an expression of strategy. When the time comes to assess a learner’s performance, the ‘attainment of objectives’ becomes a much more meaningful statement than merely ‘attainment’. It is the trainer’s responsibility to highlight the objectives of the course and to decide on the type of course which will most effectively enable the learners to reach the objectives. The following examples show some objectives stated in terms of what the student should be able to do: 

The student shall be able to give examples of simple ‘permit-to-work’ systems.



The student shall be able to prepare sketches of the scene of an accident.



The student shall be able to give examples of Case Law on health and safety at work and the decided cases in establishing the principles of civil liability.

The above examples are instances of the student behaviour which is expected to result from a learning situation. The value of these student objectives is that they provide a reasonably reliable measure of student performance which is, in some way, observable. A specific objective is a statement of student behaviour that is largely observable and results from a learning situation. We cannot assess directly what goes on in the students’ minds, but a statement of outcomes allows us to make reasonable inferences.

Levels of Skills and Knowledge Objectives can be brought together into three areas which reflect the three domains of learning generally accepted by psychologists. Objectives can be classified in terms of: •

Psychomotor or Motor Skills Motor skills can be described in terms of the physical aspects of a person’s ability to perform some task. Typical verbs are: build; construct; draw; set up.

•

Affective or Attitude Skills Attitude or affective skills are to do with such things as a person’s attitude to safety or to participating in a discussion. Typical verbs are: respond; participate; judge.

•

Cognitive or Intellectual Skills Cognitive or intellectual skills can be subdivided into four groups:

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−

Information objectives are concerned with recall or recognition of previously learned material.

−

Comprehension objectives are concerned with an ability to show an understanding of facts or principles (e.g. calculate; compare; demonstrate; discuss; distinguish; explain).

−

Application objectives expect students to bring a number of ideas together, possibly to apply laws and theories to practical situations, or concepts and principles to new situations (e.g. apply; determine; show; use).

−

Invention objectives will generally include aspects of all the other levels. A person would be expected to recognise unstated assumptions and fallacies, evaluate the relevance of data, formulate new processes or principles, propose plans for an experiment, judge the adequacy with which conclusions are supported by data, judge the value of a report, etc.

Learning objectives should be as precise as possible and wherever possible should include details of the standards that students should be able to attain and the conditions under which they will be attained.

Know the Intended Audience Like any piece of communication, a training session needs to be planned carefully to suit the needs of the audience. You should in particular consider how much knowledge of the subject your listeners will already have, since they will easily become bored, or even angry, if they feel that you are talking down to them. Similarly, giving a presentation which is too complex can be just as ineffective, since listeners feel resentful and will soon lose interest unless they can follow what is going on. Make sure that you find out who your audience are - that is, what level of employees, with what kinds of working experience and knowledge - and plan your presentation accordingly. Professional lecturers talk of knowing where to ‘pitch’ an address, meaning finding the right level of vocabulary and ideas for a group, and you should seek to develop this kind of skill and judgment. Be aware of the abilities of your audience, their attitudes towards health and safety, and the different ways in which people learn. Honey and Mumford have suggested that there are four distinct styles of learning: 

Activist.



Reflector.



Theorist.



Pragmatist.

Each of us appears to have a preference for one (or more) of these styles, and they are not mutually exclusive. It is not unknown for someone to exhibit equal preference for two and occasionally more styles. •

The activist style is shown by those who prefer to be involved in the learning process and are best motivated by activities which present new experiences and opportunities.

•

The reflector type prefer to have time to consider and prepare themselves with information. They are able to stand back from activities and to observe what is happening.

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•

Theorists learn best when they are given time to delve into things, to analyse complex situations, and they welcome opportunities to ask questions.

•

Pragmatists like to see links between the learning and the practical applications of it. They also like to have an early opportunity to implement their learning.

Trainers need to recognise these differences in preferred learning styles in order to make sure their training methods include a range which caters for them all. As well as the different styles of learning, in general we use three different kinds of memory in order to help us learn: 

Visual - where we absorb new information via pictures, films, etc.



Auditory - where the spoken word is more effective.



Kinaesthetic - where we find it easier to remember things in which we have been physically involved.

The most effective learning takes place when all three of these are involved, and again this has important implications for trainers.

Prepare the Session It is very important to make all the preparations for a training session in advance. Training which is delivered ‘off-the-cuff’ will not have the same effect as a carefully planned and thought out presentation. Inevitably, things will be missed out and the trainees will lose the benefit of a carefully structured session that takes them step by step through what they need to know. Questions and possible problems should be anticipated, so that the trainer has available all the information and resources needed on the day.

Prepare the Venue Setting the room out in a way that defines the relationship between the trainer and the trainees is helpful. Tables are useful for presenters and audience alike to rest on, store materials or act as a barrier. How the presenter makes use of a table in a small presentation affects the audience response. Some suggested layouts are shown in the figure that follows (there are in fact research papers which discuss this topic, but the figure indicates most of the popular options).

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Presenter

Presenter Presenter

Presenter

Optional additional rows

Presenter Presenter

Suggested Seating Arrangements

Select the Appropriate Training Style It is important to choose a style of training which suits the particular trainees. The range of training techniques available to trainers includes: •

The presentation.

•

The lesson.

•

Discussion groups.

•

Role-play exercises.

•

Case studies.

•

Demonstrations.

Whatever technique(s) are selected, the aim should be to develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes in the trainees which will help them to do their jobs safely and effectively. We will concentrate here on the presentation and lesson methods.

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The Presentation A presentation may be defined as ‘a straight talk or exposition, possibly including visual or other aids, given to a group without their participation other than through asking questions at the end’. It is useful in: 

Delivering information about rules and regulations.



Briefing on working methods.



Introducing a future activity.



Giving an expert the opportunity to present their views.



Recapping or summarising.

Its advantages include: 

It can cover a wide range of material.



It can deal with large groups at a time.



It is flexible in terms of location.

Its disadvantages include: •

It is chiefly one-way communication.

•

It is inappropriate for teaching skills.

•

It is limited in its use of the senses, i.e. chiefly hearing.

•

It includes very little feedback.

The presentation relies on the motivation of the trainees in order to maintain interest (most people’s interest span is reckoned to be about 20 minutes). The presentation is a poor teaching medium, with only about 30% of what is said actually being heard.

The Lesson A lesson is much more flexible than a presentation in terms of the communication method. It can be used: 

To teach facts, methods and techniques, with a follow-up practical session for the trainees to apply their learning.



To teach manipulative skills.

The advantages of a lesson include: 

Trainees’ involvement in asking and answering questions, completing exercises, discussing results and practising what has been learned.

•

Enabling the trainees to learn by doing.

•

Increasing the trainees’ understanding of the subject.

•

Giving the trainer opportunities for checking the learning and providing feedback.

Disadvantages include: 

Limitations on the numbers in the group.

•

Greater costs than a presentation.

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Prepare Handouts or Training Notes Any handouts or notes which you plan to issue as part of the training session require careful preparation. Valuable training time can be wasted correcting errors and inconsistencies brought to your attention during the session. Also, trainees may rely on the materials at a later date to remind them of what was taught. Make sure that the handouts are clearly presented with a suitable layout and typeface and that there are enough copies for all those who will be attending the training session. Do the notes serve the purpose for which you intended them? Are they up-to-date or do you need to amend them in the light of recent developments?

Prepare Visual Aids The most important point to grasp at the outset is that, although the use of graphics and pictures can greatly enhance a training session, not every document or oral presentation will need them or be more effective because of them. Using graphics in order to appear more professional but without reflecting the purpose of the communication is a costly waste of time. It also makes you appear more concerned with trivial presentation issues rather than the detail of the subject matter – they can detract from, rather than enhance communication. Unless they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s time. If you are planning a handout or presentation, then, you need to ask yourself: 

Would this communication be improved by using images to put across any of the information?



What would be the most appropriate format?

Do not ask yourself: 

What graphics shall I use?

The difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use visual images if they will enhance the communication and are appropriate.

Using Visual Images to Best Effect The key characteristics of visual images are as follows: 

They can encapsulate a wide range of information in one image.



They are good at displaying relationships.



They are easily understood and are not dependent upon a particular language.



They can be easily remembered.



They can break up text or lengthy verbal deliveries and provide a different experience for the audience.



They can encourage interest in the communication.

Visual presentation, including the use of pictures, diagrams, icons, logos, charts and graphs, can be quickly assimilated and can make information much easier to comprehend. People are adept at speed-reading visual messages and find it easier to interpret figures shown pictorially. Graphics can be used to explain relationships and actions that would be difficult to convey concisely in words – consider the saying 'a picture can paint a thousand words'. Examples of this include: 

Drawings to illustrate the kinetic method of manual handling.

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

An organisation structure chart showing responsibilities for health and safety.



A flow diagram outlining the stages in a chemical process.



Slides showing examples of injuries resulting from accidents or ill-health conditions, e.g. swarf in the eye or radiation burns.



Slides showing dangerous occurrences or situations, e.g. unsafe scaffolding or unguarded machinery.

Visual messages used well create impact, and a striking image can attract the attention of an audience. Information presented visually is also more likely to be retained in the receiver’s memory.

The Impact on the Audience Never forget that you have included a visual presentation to enhance the message and help your audience understand it. Use images to stimulate interest and draw your audience’s attention to specific points in your presentation. It does not matter what type of images you use, but remember some basic principles: 

Select images that reflect the nature of the communication and represent a dimension of the subject under discussion – they should always seem to naturally support the communication, rather than clash with it.



Where the image is used to convey information, make specific reference to it and explain its meaning if necessary – do not simply assume understanding.



Opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and confusion. Using different colours to highlight areas of particular relevance, or to distinguish between different types of information, greatly increases clarity.



Ensure that the image is sufficiently large and clear that it can be easily read – in some cases, the words on diagrams are so small that they are almost impossible to make out.



Take care not to use images that could offend or upset your audience.

Interact with Trainees There is always a danger that trainees will lose interest in a training session before it has been completed. Their concentration may be wavering, they may be finding it hard to understand what is being said, or they may simply become bored with the subject. Look out for the telltale signs such as yawning, fidgeting or gazing out the window, and try to involve your audience more. You can do this by: •

Including discussions, question and answer sessions, and other group activities where an audience is of a manageable size.

•

Using a variety of delivery methods, such as audio-visual and flip-charts.

•

Developing a relationship with the audience. Look carefully at them while you are speaking so that you give the impression of being interested in them as individuals, watch for their responses, create enthusiasm and scan your audience continually for feedback.

•

Providing handouts summarising key points to which reference can be made.

It is standard practice to allow time for questions and discussion after any formal presentation. This enables those attending to raise issues of concern or seek clarification. Sometimes it can help to arrive at common ground on contentious issues.

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The best application of discussion is where it is structured, with a specific time set aside for predetermined issues, plus any additional time to deal with questions from the floor. Most trainers are prepared to take questions during the presentation as well as allowing time for discussion at the end. This is acceptable as long as the trainer controls the proceedings and can deal with all the subject-matter which forms part of his brief. When handling questions, it is vitally important to answer within your knowledge. If you do not know the answer you must not guess - the result may be that people may go away with the incorrect answer! If you do not know, say so. The group will respect your honesty, though if you do not know the answer to most of the questions, your credibility may come into question. You should also make sure that you take questions from a range of people and that no-one is allowed to dominate the proceedings at the expense of others. Answer briefly, and be firm but gentle in moving on to other members of the audience.

Timing Always be aware of the time allotted for the training session. Those involved will have other commitments and may ‘switch off’ mentally if you overrun. Also, people’s span of concentration is limited and you will do your subject a disservice by carrying on beyond it. If necessary, set out a written plan for the session which includes approximate timings for the items to be covered. In some circumstances it may be appropriate to give this to the trainees also. Above all, do not finish late. If issues remain unresolved then arrange a further session at a later date or speak to people individually.

Provide for Emergencies The best laid plans can go awry when unexpected events occur. You cannot cater for emergencies such as the need to evacuate the building during the training session because a fire has broken out elsewhere. The normal evacuation procedures will apply and all work activities including your training event will be interrupted until such time as it is safe to continue. You will need to make plans to recover the lost time after the event. There are some emergencies, however, which you can plan for before the event, such as failure of equipment to be used during your presentation. It could be something as small as the blowing of the bulb in a projector, but without a spare bulb you would be unable to proceed. Alternative equipment should always be available and readily accessible if the training session depends on it.

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Evaluating Training The evaluation stage in the training cycle is concerned with a review of the training, for the purpose of assessing whether it has met the objectives. A trainer needs to find out whether or not trainees have achieved the objectives and some form of feedback is therefore called for. Most trainees will expect a measure of feedback to be built into the training programme; the regularity, quality and quantity, together with its ease of availability, will have a strong influence on what is learned. If training involves some practical skill, i.e. safe methods of work, then this can be evaluated by observing whether the trainee is now able to perform this. If, on the other hand, the aim of training is to impart knowledge or change attitudes, i.e. to improve safety awareness, this is much more difficult to measure. Trainee assessment allows a trainer to: 

Judge the success of the course and so recognise any modifications or adjustments which are needed.



Measure the progress of individual trainees in relation to themselves or their peers.

Assessment needs to be part of the overall design of the course and not some add-on feature, as it indicates the degree to which both learners and trainers have achieved their original aims and objectives. It also provides feedback on how effective training is and allows the trainer to make changes in teaching methods and in the methods of assessment in the light of experience.

Methods of Evaluation Observable Outcomes Testing of Trainees •

Formal Assessment This is possibly the only effective way of evaluation but it poses the potential problem that it might show up failure. We want to know whether the training method was effective, as well as whether the trainee has learned. But the fault could lie with the trainee who has simply not learned, rather than representing ineffective training methods. As human beings, we all have limitations and often if we are to learn facts, we need certain basic knowledge to build on. Age is a factor - it is easier to memorise when you are young. Before giving any assessment, think about how you will counsel trainees with difficulties. Senior management do not usually like to attend courses which have an element of assessment. It is not easy to deal with a failure situation when you are known to be infallible. Watch this point if you are suggesting a safety course for managers. This is an example from experience. Junior mining officials have to obtain a certificate every three years to show that they can effectively test for methane gas using a flame safety lamp. They also have to renew a first-aid qualification. Refresher courses are used to help remedy this situation and it is surprising how necessary this safety instruction is. However, during the 1984 year-long strike in the UK mining industry, many of the safety officials were not available. Senior management had to perform these duties. Although the colliery manager and higher officials were expected to know how to make tests for methane, they did not have to pass the regular test. The government inspectors insisted that this qualification would now be needed. It was an experience to instruct and test these high-ranking officials, and it was quite surprising how many wrong ideas needed to

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be corrected. They did not relish the possibility of failure, and the inspectors made a point of supervising every test situation. The use of a short pre-test and a final test, even when the results are not communicated to the trainees, will give a good guide as to how effective the instruction has been. •

Continuous Assessment This is only possible during an extended course of instruction or training, but is ideal. It is very much better to establish that you are making steady progress. If you find that something needs to be corrected at an early stage, then there could be time to change. Safety awareness courses can include continuous assessment and this has many benefits for both the trainer and the trainee. It relies on the professional judgment of the trainer, but can also be supplemented by short practical tests.

Implementation of Training in Work The quality or quantity of the trainee’s job performance before and after training can be measured, to see whether an improvement has been made. The ultimate test for any training is, of course, whether it changes employee behaviour in the workplace and leads to safer working practices. In the context of health and safety, this can sometimes be very easily tested by observation. For example, if PPE compliance is considered, training effectiveness can be easily discovered. •

Case Study 1 A factory department, where noise levels are above the second action level, has a problem with compliance with the mandatory hearing protection rules. All employees have pairs of ear defenders, but almost 50% do not wear their ear defenders at all appropriate times or correctly. The department manager instigates a series of one-hour training sessions for all staff on the hazards of working in high noise areas, the need for ear defenders, the correct use of the ear defenders and their routine care and user maintenance. A few days after the last training session, a series of random sampling surveys are conducted during various shifts in the department. Compliance with the hearing protection use rules has now risen to 97%. This clearly indicates a positive behavioural change in the workplace. The 3% noncompliance can be addressed through retraining, supervision or enforcement as necessary. The challenge will then be to maintain the high level of compliance in the long term – a challenge which might be addressed by toolbox talks, random inspections, supervision and enforcement, perhaps backed up by repeat training at a suitable interval (say, after three years).

On other occasions, the effectiveness of health and safety training is less easy to discover. Often the desired behaviour is not as straightforward to observe as the wearing of ear defenders. •

Case Study 2 In the previous case study, employees might have been instructed to wipe their ear defenders clean with alcohol wipes on a weekly basis for hygiene purposes. Finding out whether this behaviour is happening will be far more difficult. It might be done very simplistically by monitoring usage of the alcohol wipe stocks. However, just because alcohol wipe stocks are being used does not mean that they are being used to clean ear defenders. Even if they are, they might be being used in an ineffective or incorrect way. The challenge to the organisation is to determine which elements of the training are

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safety-critical (i.e. which bits must be put into practice to ensure safety) and then how those elements can be assessed by observing workplace behaviour. In the case study example, the organisation might decide that trying to directly observe the ear defender cleaning is too difficult and time-consuming and that instead the hygiene issue will be monitored by simply randomly inspecting a few pairs of ear defenders on a weekly basis to pick up on good and bad practice. In some instances, the training provided cannot realistically be assessed in the workplace; instead reliance is placed on testing and assessment of the worker as an integral part of the training course. For example, fire extinguisher test engineers are trained and then tested and assessed as a part of their course. If they pass, they are considered competent and can practise as certified test engineers. No-one will watch them work, test their work or dismantle extinguishers to check their work. They are trusted to do the job correctly on the basis that they passed the course assessment. However, it should still be possible to monitor the quality of this type of work, even if the ultimate assessment is derived from the investigation of a critical failure! A further consideration when relying on professional competence is the likelihood of periodic reassessment to discourage people from cutting corners and to ensure that they are fulfilling their role correctly. Many professions use continuous professional development (CPD) to maintain competence and require their members to provide evidence of this.

Feedback From Participants At the end of a training course, it is common practice to canvass the views of the trainees to find out their feelings about the course. The immediate reactions are not an entirely reliable guide but they do give some indication. Questionnaires can give some insight into whether the objectives of the course have been met. Trainees can also make valuable and helpful suggestions for improvement. Questionnaires which ask the trainee to rate various aspects of the instruction on a scale from 1 to 10 are often used. Others give a space for written comments. The answers given often convey some element of personal preference, and even those who are very satisfied with a course may feel that they have to find some fault. Consider carefully how you will handle such comments. Such ‘happy sheets’ probably give more information on trainer style and environmental quality rather than the effectiveness of the training from a health and safety perspective, but do form an important part of course evaluation. From Line Managers Some initial appraisal will help identify a training need. After attending a training course, another appraisal should indicate that the need no longer applies. If there is still a need then either the course is deficient, or the person sent for training needs additional help. Just being present in a training session does not naturally cause a transmission of information and skills from the trainer to the trainee. Some intensive safety courses tend to be 'soporific' after a few hours, and how much 'sinks in' is questionable. If the company is paying people to attend the training, then the participants should be subject to some kind of appraisal after training. The key question for the front line manager is: “Did the training result in a noticeable improvement in safe working methods, which was still in place after three months?”.

Questions to be addressed The evaluation of training needs to address three main questions: 

Was the training appropriate?

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

Was the delivery effective?



Was the exercise cost-effective?

One of the most difficult and unsatisfactory parts of the training process is that of evaluating how effective it has been, but with training costs rising and organisations looking to reduce their overall expenditure, it is becoming increasingly important to have some means of proving its cost-effectiveness. Effective training programmes can provide an organisation with a competitive advantage arising from factors such as: 

Employees tend to judge an organisation on the opportunities/expectations it provides for personal development and many employees do wish to extend their expertise in health and safety.



Training in replacement skills for technological change leads to a highly developed, flexible workforce, who are up to date in modern best practice and safe systems of work.



Having a good training reputation leads to attraction of good recruits, improved work performance, increased morale and self-confidence, a positive working environment, reduced error rates and less supervision, but most important a workforce that adheres to current best and safe practice.

Ensuring that training is actually effective is therefore extremely important. Evaluation, strictly speaking, assesses the extent to which training has produced value for money, i.e. ‘was it worth doing?’. The cost of carrying out training can be relatively easy to measure, and if it is possible to measure the financial benefit to the organisation of having carried out the training, for example in terms of fewer accidents or less time off due to ill-health, then it is possible to evaluate the training. This should easily be linked into the financial argument for good health and safety management. The costs of training tend to come under a number of headings, such as: 

Learning materials – training booklets, videos, etc.

•

Tuition costs – trainer’s fees, travelling expenses, etc. and administrative costs.

•

Accommodation - training rooms, overnight accommodation (where appropriate).

•

Travelling costs - of course attendees.

•

Opportunity costs - work time losses due to attendance on courses.

It is always advisable to have an administrative system set up to monitor such costs and keep them under control. Some programmes are inherently easier to evaluate than others - for instance: 

It is easier to determine the cost of off-the-job training, where the costs can be predetermined, than on-the-job training, where a large part of the cost includes opportunity costs in terms of loss of work time by the person responsible for the training.

•

The benefits of training for those whose work is measurable in terms of production are easier to measure than for those whose work is concerned with less tangible ‘output’ such as design and development, or the supervision of others.

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Validating Training As we saw in the previous subsection, evaluation is essentially concerned with determining the value of training provided, both for the individual employee and for the company. Validation, on the other hand, is concerned with ratification or confirmation of the quality of the training and the standards of learning.

Validation by an External Authority Courses which are designed to lead to a recognised qualification are validated externally. Some courses, such as university degrees, are designed and validated by the institution which offers the course. Other types of courses may be centrally designed or validated but are offered by a number of different sources including both colleges and private providers. In addition, there are courses where the providers in effect act as agents, an important part of their role being involved in ‘selling’ the awards to both employers and individuals. The generally accepted advantage of externally validating and assessing courses is that the awards involved are able to gain national (or international) credibility.

Internal Quality Control of the Training Provider Where courses are designed to provide job-related training, usually for specific skills, these are often designed and validated internally by the organisation whose employees are to receive the training. The advantage to the organisation of this is that the content of the course can be tailor-made to achieve the learning objectives which they have identified themselves. The training can also be integrated with mentoring and practice on-the-job and validated by staff who understand exactly what the organisation’s needs are. There will be some circumstances, however, where it is necessary to seek training from an external provider. In deciding which providers to use, the following questions should be asked: 

Have we ever used them before, and if so, were they satisfactory?

•

If we have not used them before, is there any evidence available from other previous users that they were satisfactory?

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What evidence can the providers produce to show they have a good track record for the type of training we need?

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What type of package do the providers offer in terms of the provision of briefing and debriefing sessions, the provision of appropriate written material, etc.?



What methods of training can the providers offer and do they match our needs?

In considering the level of control the organisation can exercise over the providers, you need to ask: 

What syllabus will the training programme follow, and who devised it?

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Are the providers prepared to discuss any proposals that will ensure the programme meets the organisation’s needs and objectives?

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How long will the training take and is this appropriate to the trainees’ needs?

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When training is carried out away from the actual working environment, there is a need to consider the effect on trainees when they return to the workplace. They have to transfer what they learned in a conducive environment to operating in the real world with all its distractions.

Examination of the Participants If the training is validated by an external authority then this will include some kind of examination of the participants, leading to the award of a recognised qualification such as a certificate or diploma. The British Safety Coucil course which you are studying is an example of this kind of training. The examination may take the form of written papers, requiring answers to multiple-choice, short or essay-type questions, or practical exercises such as carrying out a risk assessment in the workplace. In the case of this unit of your British Safety Council course, you will know that you have to successfully complete a 10,000-word assignment based on your assessment of the health and safety culture and climate of a workplace.

Analysis of the Examination Results The standards achieved by trainees in the examination will indicate those who are competent to undertake tasks safely and who are ready for this responsibility, and those who require further support. This may be in the form of repeat training or could involve closer supervision. Consideration might need to be given to transferring trainees to other tasks, to which they are more suited. Where standards achieved are generally low, the quality of the training may need to be reviewed: 

Is the right provider being used?

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Is the individual trainer satisfactory?

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Is the method of training right for those particular trainees?

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Is the company providing enough support?

Evaluation of the Development of the Participants The results of formal assessment need to be evaluated within the context of the overall development of training participants: 

How far have they progressed in their understanding of health and safety requirements in the workplace?

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Are they able to transfer their learning to the work situation?

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What further training do they require and when should this be carried out?

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Have they progressed sufficiently to be able to work without close supervision?

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Are they ready to take on more responsibility, perhaps for the supervision of others?

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Are they equipped to pass on their knowledge to others as part of a training or mentoring programme?

A structured training programme designed to enable individuals to develop their capabilities and progress is an important factor in retaining staff and therefore in the continuity and improvement of the health and safety culture.

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Unit 3A - Course Notes

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